Page "Heian period" Paragraph 15

Under the early courts, when military conscription had been centrally controlled, military affairs had been taken out of the hands of the provincial aristocracy.

But as the system broke down after 792, local power holders again became the primary source of military strength.

Shōen holders had access to manpower and, as they obtained improved military technology ( such as new training methods, more powerful bows, armor, horses, and superior swords ) and faced worsening local conditions in the ninth century, military service became part of shōen life.

Not only the shōen but also civil and religious institutions formed private guard units to protect themselves.

Gradually, the provincial upper class was transformed into a new military elite based on the ideals of the bushi ( warrior ) or samurai ( literally, one who serves ).