Page "Operant conditioning" Paragraph 27

The first scientific studies identifying neurons that responded in ways that suggested they encode for conditioned stimuli came from work by Mahlon deLong and by R. T. Richardson.

They showed that nucleus basalis neurons, which release acetylcholine broadly throughout the cerebral cortex, are activated shortly after a conditioned stimulus, or after a primary reward if no conditioned stimulus exists.

These neurons are equally active for positive and negative reinforcers, and have been demonstrated to cause plasticity in many cortical regions.

Evidence also exists that dopamine is activated at similar times.

There is considerable evidence that dopamine participates in both reinforcement and aversive learning.

Dopamine pathways project much more densely onto frontal cortex regions.

Cholinergic projections, in contrast, are dense even in the posterior cortical regions like the primary visual cortex.

A study of patients with Parkinson's disease, a condition attributed to the insufficient action of dopamine, further illustrates the role of dopamine in positive reinforcement.

It showed that while off their medication, patients learned more readily with aversive consequences than with positive reinforcement.

Patients who were on their medication showed the opposite to be the case, positive reinforcement proving to be the more effective form of learning when the action of dopamine is high.