Page "Organized crime" Paragraph 26

" Zones of transition " refer to deteriorating neighbourhoods with shifting populations-conflict between groups, fighting, " turf wars ", and theft promotes solidarity and cohesion.

Cohen ( 1955 ): working class teenagers joined gangs due to frustration of inability to achieve status and goals of the middle class ; Cloward and Ohlin ( 1960 ): blocked opportunity, but unequal distribution of opportunities lead to creating different types of gangs ( that is, some focused on robbery and property theft, some on fighting and conflict and some were retreatists focusing on drug taking ); Spergel ( 1966 ) was one of the first criminologists to focus on evidence-based practice rather than intuition into gang life and culture.

Klein ( 1971 ) like Spergel studied the effects on members of social workers ’ interventions.

More interventions actually lead to greater gang participation and solidarity and bonds between members.

Downes and Rock ( 1988 ) on Parker ’ s analysis: strain theory applies, labelling theory ( from experience with police and courts ), control theory ( involvement in trouble from early childhood and the eventual decision that the costs outweigh the benefits ) and conflict theories.

No ethnic group is more disposed to gang involvement than another, rather it is the status of being marginalised, alienated or rejected that makes some groups more vulnerable to gang formation, and this would also be accounted for in the effect of social exclusion, especially in terms of recruitment and retention.

These may also be defined by age ( typically youth ) or peer group influences, and the permanence or consistency of their criminal activity.

These groups also form their own symbolic identity or public representation which are recognisable by the community at large ( include colours, symbols, patches, flags and tattoos ).