Page "Tyranny of numbers" Paragraph 5

Unlike modules, ICs were built using photoetching techniques on an assembly line, greatly reducing their cost.

Although any given IC might have the same chance of working or not working as a module, they cost so little that if they didn't work you simply threw it away and tried another.

In fact, early IC assembly lines had failure rates around 90 % or greater, which kept their prices high.

The U. S Air Force and NASA were major purchasers of early ICs, where their small size and light weight overcame any cost issues.