La Mettrie, Leibniz and Spinoza all in their own way began this way of thinking.

A distinguished German savant, Heinrich Oldenburg, wrote to Baruch Spinoza ( Spinozae Epistolae No 33 ): " All the world here is talking of a rumour of the return of the Israelites ... to their own country.

* The philosopher Spinoza reportedly sketched a portrait of Masaniello with a face very similar to his own ; an apparent self-portrait of the philosopher as a fisherman in a shirt, with a net thrown over his shoulder, a pose made familiar by portraits of Masaniello.

Mathematicians and philosophers, such as Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead, and Baruch Spinoza, have attempted to create their own foundational " Elements " for their respective disciplines, by adopting the axiomatized deductive structures that Euclid's work introduced.

After analyzing certain Biblical texts, Spinoza opted for tolerance and freedom of thought in his conclusion that " every person is in duty bound to adapt these religious dogmas to his own understanding and to interpret them for himself in whatever way makes him feel that he can the more readily accept them with full confidence and conviction.

Inspired by the philosophers Plato, Kant and Spinoza, and also by the psychologists Freud, Adler and Jung, he delved into his own psychological research and established the basis of the introspective analysis method that helped him develop his theories of the psychology of motivation.

The three discussed their own work, but also books such as Ernst Mach ’ s Analyse der Empfindungen, Henri Poincaré's Wissenschaft und Hypothese, John Stuart Mill ’ s A System of Logic, David Hume ’ s Treatise of Human Nature, and Baruch Spinoza ’ s Ethics, and sometimes literary works such as Miguel de Cervantes ' Don Quixote.

For these philosophers, conation was the very essence of the person, for, as Spinoza said, it was through conation that one persevered in one's own being.

The importance of Machiavelli's influence is notable in many important figures in this endeavor, for example Bodin, Francis Bacon, Algernon Sidney, Harrington, John Milton, Spinoza, Rousseau, Hume, Edward Gibbon, and Adam Smith.

According to German philosopher Karl Jaspers, when Spinoza wrote " Deus sive Natura " ( God or Nature ) Spinoza did not mean to say that God and Nature are interchangeable terms, but rather that God's transcendence was attested by his infinitely many attributes, and that two attributes known by humans, namely Thought and Extension, signified God's immanence.

The three main rationalists were all committed to the importance of empirical science, and in many respects the empiricists were closer to Descartes in their methods and metaphysical theories than were Spinoza and Leibniz.

The importance of rationalist philosophers such as John Locke, Descartes, Spinoza and many others who followed them, and the scientific, social and economic developments of this period began to have ever greater impact, and in place of the older classical idealism, a more realistic, pragmatic, empirical understanding of life and human behavior, which recognized human individuality and conscious experience, began to emerge.

Indirect realism has been popular in the history of philosophy and has been developed by many philosophers including Bertrand Russell, Baruch Spinoza, René Descartes, and John Locke, the 17th century philosopher who most prominently advocated this theory.

According to German philosopher Karl Jaspers, when Spinoza wrote " Deus sive Natura " ( God or Nature ) Spinoza meant God was Natura naturans not Natura naturata, and Jaspers believed that Spinoza, in his philosophical system, did not mean to say that God and Nature are interchangeable terms, but rather that God's transcendence was attested by his infinitely many attributes, and that two attributes known by humans, namely Thought and Extension, signified God's immanence.

13 of Laws of Thought Boole used examples of propositions from Benedict Spinoza and Samuel Clarke.

Pantheism was popularized in the modern era as both a theology and philosophy based on the work of Baruch Spinoza, whose treatise, Ethics, was an answer to Descartes ' famous dualist theory that the body and spirit are separate.

* Spinoza, Baruch ( 1677 ), Ethics.

His polemic, which is inspired throughout by Locke, is directed against the innate ideas of the Cartesians, Malebranche's faculty-psychology, Leibniz's monadism and preestablished harmony, and, above all, against the conception of substance set forth in the first part of the Ethics of Spinoza.

Benedict de Spinoza in his Ethics, published after his death in 1677, argued that most people, even those that consider themselves to exercise free will, make moral decisions on the basis of imperfect sensory information, inadequate understanding of their mind and will, as well as emotions which are both outcomes of their contingent physical existence and forms of thought defective from being chiefly impelled by self-preservation.

# Benedict de Spinoza – Ethics

# Benedict de Spinoza – Political Treatises ; Ethics

* Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Spinoza and the Ethics.

For example, Baruch Spinoza in his Ethics, suggests that a person who sees two options as truly equally compelling cannot be fully rational:

A Study of Spinoza ’ s Ethics.

But Spinoza insists that " no attribute of a substance can be truly conceived from which it follows that the substance can be divided " ( Which means that one cannot conceive an attribute in a way that leads to division of substance ), and that " a substance which is absolutely infinite is indivisible " ( Ethics, Part I, Propositions 12 and 13 ).

Early in The Ethics Spinoza argues that there is only one substance, which is absolutely infinite, self-caused, and eternal.

Yet Spinoza seems to make room for a kind of freedom, especially in the fifth and final section of The Ethics, " On the Power of the Intellect, or on Human Freedom ":

* Study of the Ethics of Spinoza ( Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata ) ( 1901 )

Spinoza's philosophy is a system of ideas constructed upon basic building blocks with an internal consistency with which Spinoza tried to answer life's major questions and in which he proposed that " God exists only philosophically.

Although he was not always mentioned by name as an inspiration, due to his controversy, he is also thought to have been a major influence on other major influence for example upon Hobbes, Spinoza, and Montesquieu.

Notable attempts to improve upon the methodological approach of Hobbes include those of Locke, Spinoza, Giambattista Vico ( 1984 xli ), and Rousseau ( 1997 part 1 ).

John Toland was influenced by both Spinoza and Bruno, and sometimes used the terms ' pantheist ' and ' Spinozist ' interchangeably.

Kant claimed it was Hume ’ s skepticism about the nature of inductive reasoning and the conclusions of rationalist metaphysicians ( Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz ) that " roused him from his dogmatic ( i. e. rationalist ) slumbers " and spurred him on to one of the most far reaching re-evaluations of human reason since Aristotle.

Jeeves frequently displays mastery over a vast range of subjects from philosophy ( his favourite philosopher is Spinoza ) to an encyclopedic knowledge of poetry, science, history, psychology, geography, politics and literature.

The treatise also rejected the Jewish notion of " chosenness "; to Spinoza, all peoples are on par with each other, as God has not elevated one over the other.

Professor David Cockburn MA BPhil DPhil ( born 12 October 1949 ) studied Philosophy at St Andrews and Oxford, and has taught at Swansea, the Open University, and, until 2010, has spent over 30 years at the University of Wales, Lampeter, where he teaches courses on the philosophy of mind, Spinoza, Wittgenstein among others.

Spinoza thinks that there are an infinite number of attributes, but there are two attributes for which Spinoza thinks we can have knowledge.

Some philosophers who have had more noteworthy theories are Parmenides, Leucippus, Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Plotinus, Aquinas, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Hegel, Heidegger, and Sartre.

Entering the University of Leiden he took his degree in philosophy in 1689, with a dissertation De distinctione mentis a corpore ( on the difference of the mind from the body ), in which he attacked the doctrines of Epicurus, Thomas Hobbes and Spinoza.

Boerhaave was critical of his Dutch contemporary, Baruch Spinoza, attacking him in his dissertation in 1689.

Baruch Spinoza, though he argued for the existence of a permanent reality, asserts that all phenomenal existence is transitory.

" The German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: " With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly.

Cognitive science has a pre-history traceable back to ancient Greek philosophical texts ( see Plato's Meno ); and certainly must include writers such as Descartes, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Benedict de Spinoza, Nicolas Malebranche, Pierre Cabanis, Leibniz and John Locke.

Baruch Spinoza in " Principia philosophiae cartesianae " at its Prolegomenon identified " cogito ergo sum " the " ego sum cogitans " ( I am a thinking being ) as the thinking substance with his ontological interpretation.

Thomas Hobbes and Baruch Spinoza, in the next generation, are often also described as an empiricist and a rationalist respectively.

My belief is theistic, not pantheistic, following Leibniz rather than Spinoza.

This kind of idealism led to the pantheism of Spinoza.

The concept was also an important aspect of the more radical 17th-century republican tradition of Spinoza, from whom Rousseau differed in important respects, but not in his insistence on the importance of equality.

Latin was the language of the ancient Romans, but it was also the lingua franca of Europe throughout the middle ages, so Latin literature includes not only Roman authors like Cicero, Vergil, Ovid and Lucretius, but also includes European writers after the fall of the Empire from religious writers like St. Augustine ( 354 – 430 AD ), to secular writers like Francis Bacon ( 1561-1626 ) and Spinoza ( 1632 – 1677 ).

The distinction is mostly applied to modern philosophy with philosophers such John Locke, David Hume and George Berkeley on the empiricist side, and René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried Leibniz on the other.

Proponents range from Baruch Spinoza to Ted Honderich.

* Stoics, like Spinoza later, taught that there is only one substance, identified as God.

Some of the most famous pantheists are the Stoics, Giordano Bruno and Spinoza.

Some examples of this are Baruch Spinoza, David Hume, Ernst Mach, Richard Avenarius, and Joseph Petzoldt.

* 1632 – Baruch Spinoza, Dutch philosopher ( d. 1677 )

* Baruch Spinoza: Set forth the first analysis of " rational egoism ", in which the rational interest of self is conformance with pure reason.