Antisemitism has been described as primarily hatred against Jews as a race with its modern expression rooted in 19th century racial theories, while anti-Judaism is described as hostility to Jewish religion, but in Western Christianity it effectively merged into antisemitism during the 12th century.

As for Western sources, Benjamin of Tudela, the Jewish traveler who passed through Lebanon in or about 1165, was one of the first European writers to refer to the Druzes by name.

In order to distinguish esoteric currents based primarily on sources from late Antiquity and the European Middle Ages, from e. g. Islamic or Jewish currents with similar features, the more precise term " Western esotericism " is often employed.

The Jewish Enlightenment of the late 18th century resulted in the division of Ashkenazi ( Western ) Jewry into religious movements or denominations, especially in North America and Anglophone countries.

A parallel Jewish movement, Haskalah or the " Jewish Enlightenment ", began, especially in Central Europe and Western Europe, in response to both the Enlightenment and these new freedoms.

Jewellery can also be symbolic of group membership, as in the case of the Christian crucifix or Jewish Star of David, or of status, as in the case of chains of office, or the Western practice of married people wearing a wedding ring.

His first work in Rome was an account of the Jewish War, addressed to certain " upper barbarians " – usually thought to be the Jewish community in Mesopotamia — in his " paternal tongue " ( War I. 3 ), arguably the Western Aramaic language.

Many have spoken out for the right of Jewish women to pray aloud and read from the Torah at the Western Wall in Jerusalem, the Women of the Wall group.

Certain Jewish communities, however, such as the Baladi Yemenite, Andalusian ( Western Sefardic or Spanish and Portuguese Jews ), and some Italian communities, never accepted it as authentic.

Traditional Jewish life continued in Pinsk ( Western Belarus ) until WWII.

Peter Wagner's Neumenkunde ( 1905 ) volume set out the various musical signs of all the most ancient notational styles historically and paleographically, including Jewish and Byzantine neumes, while providing a number of facsimile illustrations, giving rhythmically proportional values for the musical signs along with a few examples of proportional interpretations of certain chants in modern Western European notation.

However, whereas Western Christians follow the Gregorian Calendar in their calculations, the Orthodox calculate the fixed date of 21 March according to the Julian Calendar, and observe the additional rule that Easter may not precede or coincide with the first day of the Jewish Passover ( see computus for further details ).

Her work is deeply rooted in Western culture ( for instance, the Odyssey ) and Jewish culture.

For instance, the city of Rome maintained the last Jewish ghetto in Western Europe.

A few days after the war was over 200, 000 Jews flocked to the Western Wall in the first mass Jewish pilgrimage near the mount since the destruction of Temple in 69 CE.

Because Muslim authorities refused to permit Jewish prayer on the Temple Mount, the custom developed of praying near the Western Wall, since it was the site nearest to the Foundation Stone, or on the Mount of Olives facing the site of the Temple.

* Tikvah Institute for Jewish Thought-devoted to the intellectual encounter between the best sources of Jewish and broader Western reflection on the deepest problems of human life.

Newport is also home to the Newport Tower, Salve Regina University, Hammersmith Farm, Prescott Farm, and the Touro Synagogue, one of the oldest Jewish houses of worship in the Western hemisphere, as well as the Newport Public Library, Redwood Library and Athenaeum, one of the nation's oldest lending libraries.

The Western Wall refers not only to the exposed section facing a large plaza in the Jewish Quarter, but also to the sections concealed behind structures running along the whole length of the Temple Mount, such as the Little Western Wall – a 25 ft ( 8 m ) section in the Muslim Quarter.

Early Jewish texts referred to a “ western wall of the Temple ”, but there is doubt whether the texts were referring to today ’ s Western Wall or to another wall which stood within the Temple complex.

The earliest clear Jewish use of the term Western Wall as referring to the wall visible today was by the 11th-century Ahimaaz ben Paltiel.

* Life After Death: A History of the Afterlife in Western Religion by Alan F. Segal, Doubleday, 2004

According to Glenn W. LaFantasie, Professor of Civil War History at Western Kentucky University,

History of the Western Empire, from its Restoration by Charlemagne to the Accession of Charles V, Vol.

A History of the End of the World: How the Most Controversial Book in the Bible Changed the Course of Western Civilization.

A Military History of the Western World.

Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty.

The Natural History and Behavior of the Western Chipmunk and the Mantled Ground Squirrel.

*** The Classic of History is a collection of documents and speeches of the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou and period before.

* Kocku von Stuckrad, Western Esotericism: A Brief History of Secret Knowledge ( 2004 ), London / Oakville: Equinox Publishing, 2005, XVII-167 p.

* Philip Schaff's Church History: Conflict of the Eastern and Western Churches

In his work The Influence of Monarchs: Steps in a New Science of History Woods investigated 386 rulers in Western Europe from the 12th century till the French revolution in the late 18th century and their influence on the course of historical events.

Category: History of Western Asia

* History of Western civilization

A History of Western Society ( 2 vol 2010 ) 1300pp

* Bakels, C. C. The Western European Loess Belt: Agrarian History, 5300 BC – AD 1000 ( 2009 )

* Gregory, D. " History of the Western Highlands and Isles of Scotland " ( 1881 ).

History paintings were traditionally regarded as the highest form of Western painting, occupying the most prestigious place in the hierarchy of genres, and considered the equivalent to the epic in literature.

* Baumgartner, Frederic J. Longing for the End: A History of Millennialism in Western Civilization.

A History of Western Architecture.

* Gwatkin, H. M., Whitney, J. P. ( ed )-The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume II — The Rise of the Saracens and the Foundations of the Western Empire.

* A History of Western Philosophy

( 1983 ) The Pulp Western: A Popular History of the Western Fiction Magazine in America.

John Beloff in his book Parapsychology: A Concise History ( 1997 ) has written that in the Western world parapsychology has been " driven by desire to confound materialism or reductionism " and that there has only been a minority of parapsychologists who have advocated physical theories for psi.

A History of Western Astrology.