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Page "History of Eritrea" ¶ 19
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early and Muslim
With the beginning of the slow decline of the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century, and as a result of the expansionist policies of Czarist Russia in the Caucasus, many Muslim nations and groups in that region, mainly Circassians, Tatars, Azeris, Lezgis, Chechens, and several Turkic groups left their ancestral homelands and settled in Anatolia.
In consolidating his empire and subduing contending factions he was ably assisted by Nizam ul-Mulk, his vizier, and one of the most eminent statesmen in early Muslim history.
Its great natural strength and situation, not far from the mouth of the Sis pass, and near the great road which debouched from the Cilician Gates, made Anazarbus play a considerable part in the struggles between the Byzantine Empire and the early Muslim invaders.
Following Muhammad's death in 632, the early leaders of the Muslim nation were called Khalifat Rasul Allah, the political successors to the messenger of God ( referring to Muhammad ).
The early Muslim rulers protected the city's Christian sites, prohibiting their destruction and their use as living quarters.
The early Muslim compilations of knowledge in the Middle Ages included many comprehensive works.
The formative period of Islamic jurisprudence stretches back to the time of the early Muslim communities.
Progress in theory and methodology happened with the coming of the early Muslim jurist Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi ` i ( 767 820 ), who codified the basic principles of Islamic jurisprudence in his book ar-Risālah.
Nevertheless, Muslim writers sometimes note those elements of the Gospel of Baranabas that stand in accord with standard Qur ' anic teaching, such as the denial of Jesus as being Son of God and the prophetic prediction by Jesus of the coming Messenger of God and, consequently, some Muslims are inclined to regard these specific elements as representing the survival of suppressed early Jesus traditions much more compatible with Islam.
The Visigoths under Alaric I sacked Rome in 410, defeated Attila at the Battle of the Catalunian Plains in 451, and founded a Kingdom in Aquitaine which was pushed to Hispania by the Franks in 507, converted to Catholicism by the late sixth century, and in the early eighth century conquered by the Muslim Moors.
Firearms known as top-o-tufak also existed in many Muslim kingdoms in India by as early as 1366 AD.
Other early versions of mechanical devices used to perform one or another type of calculations include the planisphere and other mechanical computing devices invented by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī ( c. AD 1000 ); the equatorium and universal latitude-independent astrolabe by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī ( c. AD 1015 ); the astronomical analog computers of other medieval Muslim astronomers and engineers ; and the astronomical clock tower of Su Song ( c. AD 1090 ) during the Song Dynasty.
The word sunnah ( custom ) is also used in reference to a normative custom of Muhammad or the early Muslim community.
Hadith studies are a number of methods of evaluation developed by early Muslim scholars in determining the veracity of reports attributed to Muhammad.
He believed that imitation of the early Muslims and the restoration of Sharia law were essential to Islam, that secular, Westernizing Muslims were actually agents of the West serving Western interests, and that the " plundering " of Muslim lands was part of a long-term conspiracy against Islam by the Christian West.
Some Muslim scholars, such as Ibn Kathir and Kisa ' i, reproduced Jewish traditions, transmitted through early Jewish converts to Islam, regarding Isaiah.
For centuries his book was obscure, even within the Muslim world, but in the early 19th century extracts were published in German and English based on manuscripts discovered in the Middle East, containing abridged versions of Ibn Juzayy's Arabic text.
Thus, " the onus of being the last ' People of the Book ' engendered an ethos of " early on and the establishment of important book repositories throughout the Muslim world has occurred ever since.
Clerical and secular scholars from Europe turned their eyes to Iberian Peninsula as the arts and sciences prospered in an early Spanish " renaissance " under the patronage of Alfonso X, who was continuing the tradition of ( relatively ) enlightened and tolerant convivencia established by the Muslim emirate several centuries earlier.
It was also renowned for the minarets of its mosques ( four of which were still in use in the early part of the 20th century ) and the Muslim burial grounds.
In addition, significant numbers of the Tongas live in the north ; Ngonis -- an offshoot of the Zulus who came from South Africa in the early 19th century — live in the lower northern and lower central regions ; and the Yao, who are mostly Muslim, predominate in the Southern Region of the country and live in a wide band from Blantyre and Zomba north to Lake Malawi and east to the border with Mozambique.
Egypt became occupied by Muslim Arabs as early as 640, and since then so many mosques have appeared throughout the country that its capital city, Cairo, has acquired the nickname of city of a thousand minarets.
According to early Muslim historians, towns that surrendered without resistance and made treaties with the Muslims gave the Muslims permission to take their churches and synagogues.
Widely believed to be a synonym for Mecca, it is said to be more specifically the early name for the valley located therein, while Muslim scholars generally use it to refer to the sacred area of the city that immediately surrounds and includes the Kaaba.

early and tradition
There is, of course, nothing new about dystopias, for they belong to a literary tradition which, including also the closely related satiric utopias, stretches from at least as far back as the eighteenth century and Swift's Gulliver's Travels to the twentieth century and Zamiatin's We, Capek's War With The Newts, Huxley's Brave New World, E. M. Forster's `` The Machine Stops '', C. S. Lewis's That Hideous Strength, and Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four, and which in science fiction is represented before the present deluge as early as Wells's trilogy, The Time Machine, `` A Story Of The Days To Come '', and When The Sleeper Wakes, and as recently as Jack Williamson's `` With Folded Hands '' ( 1947 ), the classic story of men replaced by their own robots.
The grounds for the Church's position are Scriptural ( Old Testament ), the teachings of the fathers and doctors of the early Church, the unbroken tradition of nineteen centuries, the decisions of the highest ecclesiastical authority and the natural law.
We have aligned ourselves with that `` liberal '' tradition in Protestant Christianity that counts among the great names in its history those of Schleiermacher, Ritschl, Herrmann, Harnack, and Troeltsch, and more recently, Schweitzer and the early Barth and, in part at least, Bultmann.
As taught in the early texts, the commentarial tradition classified causal mechanisms governing the universe in five categories, known as Niyama Dhammas:
Alchemy is an influential philosophical tradition whose early practitioners ' claims to profound powers were known from antiquity.
There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the kings of Rome during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus.
The author of Acts likely relied upon oral tradition, as well as other sources, in constructing his account of the early church and Paul's ministry.
At any rate affairs in that region, including the future of the church of Ephesus ( 20: 28 30 ), are treated as though they would specially interest " Theophilus " and his circle ; also an early tradition has Luke die in the adjacent Bithynia.
Sources for events after this date are extremely scarce, but a tradition, reported as early as the mid-6th century by a British priest named Gildas, records that the British sent for help against the barbarians to Aetius, a Roman consul, probably in the late 440s.
Under the particular historical circumstances of the growing Church in the early centuries, the succession of bishops became one of the ways, together with the transmission of the Gospel and the life of the community, in which the apostolic tradition of the Church was expressed.
There is a third view that sees merit in both arguments above and attempts to bridge them, and so cannot be articulated as starkly as they can ; it sees more than one Christianity and more than one attitude towards paganism at work in the poem, separated from each other by hundreds of years ; it sees the poem as originally the product of a literate Christian author with one foot in the pagan world and one in the Christian, himself a convert perhaps or one whose forbears had been pagan, a poet who was conversant in both oral and literary milieus and was capable of a masterful " repurposing " of poetry from the oral tradition ; this early Christian poet saw virtue manifest in a willingness to sacrifice oneself in a devotion to justice and in an attempt to aid and protect those in need of help and greater safety ; good pagan men had trodden that noble path and so this poet presents pagan culture with equanimity and respect ; yet overlaid upon this early Christian poet's composition are verses from a much later reformist " fire-and-brimstone " Christian poet who vilifies pagan practice as dark and sinful and who adds satanic aspects to its monsters.
According to early tradition, this book was composed near the end of Domitian's reign, around the year 95 AD.
A rustic characteristic and tradition was developed quite early on as Boer society was born on the frontiers of white settlement and on the outskirts of civilization.
The oldest musical tradition which fits under the label of Celtic fusion originated in the rural American south in the early colonial period and incorporated Scottish, Scots-Irish, Irish, English, and African influences.
In the United Kingdom, film adaptations of stage farces were popular in the early 1930s, while the music hall tradition strongly influenced film comedy into the 1940s with Will Hay and George Formby among the top comedy stars of the time.
A cartoonist, paid by the syndicate, or sometimes a relative of the original cartoonist continues writing the strip, a tradition that became commonplace in the early half of the 20th century.
In the early Confucian tradition, lǐ was doing the proper thing at the proper time, balancing between maintaining existing norms to perpetuate an ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethical good.
The early history of the LDS Church is shared with other denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement, who all regard Joseph Smith, Jr. as the founder of their religious tradition.
In the 3rd century BC epic, the Argonautica, Apollonius Rhodius relates that Circe purified the Argonauts for the death of Absyrtus, maybe reflecting an early tradition.
The radical feminist group Cell 16 were strongly championing celibacy as a challenge to male dominance, following in a tradition of celibacy dating back to the early feminists.
In early Christian Ireland the druidic tradition collapsed due to the spread of the new Christian faith.
While the early Restoration Movement had a tradition of itinerant preachers rather than " located Preachers ", during the 20th century a long-term, formally-trained congregational minister became the norm among Churches of Christ.
Tibetans also had a tradition of cavalry warfare, in several military engagements early on with the Chinese Tang Dynasty ( 618 907 AD ), including Emperor Taizong's campaign against Tufan in 638.
Her early and later allegorical and didactic treatises reflect both autobiographical information about her life and views and also her own individualized and humanist approach to the scholastic learned tradition of mythology, legend, and history she inherited from clerical scholars and to the genres and courtly or scholastic subjects of contemporary French and Italian poets she admired.

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