For instance, the olfactory glomeruli function as sorts of way-stations for the information flowing from the olfactory receptor neurons to the olfactory cortex.

Copper has been shown to be required by a specific mouse olfactory receptor, MOR244-3, which is highly responsive to MTMT as well as to various other thiols and related compounds.

In contrast, a permanent loss of smell may be caused by death of olfactory receptor neurons in the nose or by brain injury in which there is damage to the olfactory nerve or damage to brain areas that process smell ( see olfactory system ).

Another specific cause of permanent loss could be from damage to olfactory receptor neurons because of use of certain types of nasal spray ; i. e., those that cause vasoconstriction of the nasal microcirculation.

There also has been pheromone receptor genes found in olfactory mucosa.

In 2006, it was shown that a second mouse receptor sub-class is found in the olfactory epithelium.

Examples in humans include the olfactory receptor neuron and Meissner's corpuscle, which are critical for the sense of smell and touch, respectively.

The specialized olfactory receptor neurons of the olfactory nerve are located in the olfactory mucosa of the upper parts of the nasal cavity.

Olfactory receptor neurons continue to be born throughout life and extend new axons to the olfactory bulb.

For instance, in most people the olfactory receptor pseudogenes are dead but in few they are intact and functional genes.

The vomeronasal receptor neurons possess axons which travel from the VNO to the accessory olfactory bulb ( AOB ) or, as its also known, the vomeronasal bulb.

As a neural circuit, the glomerular layer receives direct input from olfactory nerves, made up of the axons from approximately ten million olfactory receptor neurons in the olfactory mucosa, a region of the nasal cavity.

The ends of the axons cluster in spherical structures known as glomeruli such that each glomerulus receives input primarily from olfactory receptor neurons that express the same olfactory receptor.

As a neural circuit, the olfactory bulb has one source of sensory input ( axons from olfactory receptor neurons of the olfactory epithelium ), and one output ( mitral cell axons ).

Cross section of the olfactory bulb of a rat, stained in two different ways at the same time: one stain shows neuron cell bodies, the other shows receptors for the neurotransmitter GABA.

Recognizing that dysfunctional mirror neuron systems cannot account for the wide range of symptoms that are included in autism spectrum disorder ( ASD ), Ramachandran has theorized that childhood temporal lobe epilepsy and olfactory bulb dysgenesis may also play a role in creating the symptoms of ASD.

Fan and J. Ngai, ( 2001 ) Onset of odorant receptor gene expression during olfactory sensory neuron regeneration.

Once the odorant has bound to the odor receptor, the receptor undergoes structural changes and it binds and activates the olfactory-type G protein on the inside of the olfactory receptor neuron.

The cAMP opens cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels which allow calcium and sodium ions to enter into the cell, depolarizing the olfactory receptor neuron and beginning an action potential which carries the information to the brain.

# REDIRECT olfactory receptor neuron

In their later work, Buck and Axel have shown that each olfactory receptor neuron remarkably only expresses one kind of olfactory receptor protein and that the input from all neurons expressing the same receptor is collected by a single dedicated glomerulus of the olfactory bulb.

The olfactory receptor neurons ( ORN ), which originate in the nasal epithelium express only one type of olfactory receptor ( OR ).

The study of haptic ( tactile ), olfactory, and gustatory stimuli also fall into the domain of perception.

GPCRs include receptors for sensory signal mediators ( e. g., light and olfactory stimulatory molecules ); adenosine, bombesin, bradykinin, endothelin, γ-aminobutyric acid ( GABA ), hepatocyte growth factor ( HGF ), melanocortins, neuropeptide Y, opioid peptides, opsins, somatostatin, GH, tachykinins, members of the vasoactive intestinal peptide family, and vasopressin ; biogenic amines ( e. g., dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, histamine, glutamate ( metabotropic effect ), glucagon, acetylcholine ( muscarinic effect ), and serotonin ); chemokines ; lipid mediators of inflammation ( e. g., prostaglandins, prostanoids, platelet-activating factor, and leukotrienes ); and peptide hormones ( e. g., calcitonin, C5a anaphylatoxin, follicle-stimulating hormone ( FSH ), gonadotropin-releasing hormone ( GnRH ), neurokinin, thyrotropin-releasing hormone ( TRH ), cannabinoids, and oxytocin ).

Six fast legs, four well developed folding wings, fairly good eyes, long, well developed antennae ( olfactory ), an omnivorous digestive system, a receptacle for storing sperm, a chitin-based exoskeleton that could support and protect, as well as a form of gizzard and efficient mouth parts, gave it formidable advantages over other herbivorous animals.

Drugs that can induce psychotic symptoms include amphetamine, caffeine ( which can worsen psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia and produce olfactory hallucinations at very high doses in normal volunteers ), cannabis, cocaine, desoxypipradrol, dimethyltryptamine, alcohol ( ethanol ), inhalants, gammahydroxybutyric acid ( and its precursors gammabutyrolactone and 1, 4-butanediol ), ketamine, LSD, mephedrone and methcathinone, mescaline and other phenethylamine hallucinogens, methamphetamine, MDMA ( very rarely, likely due to different phethylamines that are sometimes sold as MDMA, or even piperazine derivatives sold as " extacy "), opiates such as heroin, phencyclidine, piperazine-based drugs, psilocybin, and anabolic steroids at high doses.

This inclusion of ventrally located striatal tissue in a “ unified ” striatum, along with the recognition of connectionally associated pallidal elements in the substantia innominata and deep layers of the olfactory tubercle ( i. e., the ventral pallidum ), has had great impact on the functional-anatomical concept of the basal ganglia.

Mups activate olfactory sensory neurons in the vomeronasal organ ( VNO ), a subsystem of the nose known to detect pheromones via specific sensory receptors, of mice and rats.

This is the case for many of the sensory systems ( except for the olfactory system ), such as the auditory, somatic, visceral, gustatory and visual systems where localized lesions provoke specific sensory deficits.

In mammals and reptiles, pheromones may be detected by the vomeronasal organ ( VNO ), or Jacobson's organ, which lies between the nose and mouth and is the first stage of the accessory olfactory system.

In terrestrial gastropods ( land snails and slugs ), the olfactory organs, located on the tips of the 4 tentacles, are the most important sensory organ, The chemosensory organs of opisthobranch marine gastropods are called rhinophores.

Having a keen sense of smell ( olfactory system ), eels most likely depend on scent to find food.

The vomeronasal organ ( VNO ), or Jacobson's organ, is an auxiliary olfactory sense organ that is found in many animals.

Upon stimulation activated by pheromones, IP3 production has been shown to increase in VNO membranes in many animals, while adenylyl cyclase and cyclic adenosine monophosphate ( cAMP ), the major signaling transduction molecules of the main olfactory system, remain unaltered.

# Nose-consciousness ( Tibetan: sna ’ i rnam-shes ), smelling apprehended through the olfactory organs ;

It also has a pair of short tentacles near the eye that can be extended and which have tactile and olfactory functions.

Phantosmia can also be induced by epilepsy affecting the olfactory cortex and is also thought to possibly have psychiatric origins.

There is also additional evidence that the neuropil may function in olfactory associative learning and memory .< ref name =" Renn ">

Indicators can also show change in other physical properties ; for example, olfactory indicators show change in their odor.

The new theatre was built speedily, and accounts noted that it " was situated on a site which, though rich in historical associations, was also rich in the olfactory sense.

Glial cells function to support neurons and in the PNS, also include satellite cells, olfactory ensheathing cells, enteric glia and glia that reside at sensory nerve endings, such as the Pacinian corpuscle.

Detection is also complicated by the olfactory system's particularly quick habituation to TCA, making the smell less obvious on each subsequent sniff.

An ethmoid fracture can also sever the olfactory nerve.

Between the pterygoids lay an elongated, narrow parasphenoid bone, which also spread over some of the lower surface of the braincase, and connected, at its forward end, with a sphenethmoid bone helping to protect the olfactory nerves.

Cyclopia can occur in the womb when certain proteins are inappropriately expressed and causes the brain to stay whole instead of forming into two distinct hemispheres, which also means one optic lobe and one olfactory lobe resulting in one eye.

Glomeruli are also permeated by dendrites from neurons called mitral cells, which in turn output to the olfactory cortex.

However, the olfactory bulb also receives " top-down " information from such brain areas as the amygdala, neocortex, hippocampus, locus coeruleus, and substantia nigra.

The olfactory bulb also helps humans sense when danger is near by.

Alpha-synuclein is highly expressed in the mitochondria in olfactory bulb, hippocampus, striatum, and thalamus, where the cytosolic alpha-synuclein is also rich.

Some areas of the middle turbinates are also innervated by the olfactory bulb.

This association can also be made between olfactory and tactile stimuli during the act of swallowing.

FAS has also been linked to brainstem and cerebellar changes, agenesis of the corpus callosum and anterior commissure, neuronal migration errors, absent olfactory bulbs, meningomyelocele, and porencephaly.