In particular, Ibn al-Haytham, Avicenna, Abu Rayhan al-Biruni, and Abu al-Qasim, who all flourished around the year 1000, are considered to be among the greatest scientists of the Middle Ages.

Toulmin and Goodfield ( 1965 ), commented on Avicenna's contribution: " Around A. D. 1000, Avicenna was already suggesting a hypothesis about the origin of mountain ranges, which in the Christian world, would still have been considered quite radical eight hundred years later ".

From the ninth century onward, owing to Caliph al-Ma ' mun and his successor, Greek philosophy was introduced among the Arabs, and the Peripatetic school began to find able representatives among them ; such were Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina ( Avicenna ), and Ibn Rushd ( Averroës ), all of whose fundamental principles were considered as criticized by the Mutakallamin.

From the ninth century onward, owing to Caliph al-Ma ' mun and his successor, Greek philosophy was introduced among the Persians and Arabs, and the Peripatetic school began to find able representatives among them ; such were Al-Kindi, Farabi, Ibn Sina ( Avicenna ), and Ibn Rushd ( Averroës ), all of whose fundamental principles were considered as criticized by the Mutakallamin.

From the 9th century onwards, owing to Caliph al-Ma ' mun and his successor, Greek philosophy and Hellenistic philosophy were introduced among the Persians and Arabs, and the Peripatetic and Neoplatonic schools began to find able representatives among them ; such were al-Kindi, al-Farabi, Avicenna ( Ibn Sina ), and Averroes ( Ibn Rushd ), all of whose fundamental principles were considered as criticized by the Mutakallamin.

Avicenna ( Ibn Sina ) is considered the father of modern medicine, for his introduction of experimental medicine and clinical trials, the experimental use and testing of drugs, and a precise guide for practical experimentation in the process of discovering and proving the effectiveness of medical substances, in his medical encyclopedia, The Canon of Medicine ( 11th century ), which was the first book dealing with experimental medicine.

Avicenna considered that the movement of the planets influenced life on earth in a deterministic way, but argued against the capability of determining the exact influence of the stars.

Local empire-builders such as the Ghaznavids, Ghurids and Timurids made Afghanistan a major medieval power as well as a learning center that produced the likes of Avicenna, Al-Biruni, and Rumi, among many other academic or iconic figures.

Most of the leading scientists around the year 1000 were Muslim scientists, including Ibn al-Haytham ( Alhacen ), Abu Rayhan al-Biruni, Avicenna, Abu al-Qasim ( Abulcasis ), Ibn Yunus, Abu Sahl al-Quhi ( Kuhi ), Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi, Abu Nasr Mansur, Abu al-Wafa, Ahmad ibn Fadlan, Al-Muqaddasi, Ali Ibn Isa, and al-Karaji ( al-Karkhi ), among others.

Before Avicenna the discussions among Muslim philosophers were about the unity of God as divine creator and his relationship with the world as creation.

Preeminent among Islamic philosophers who were influenced by Aristotelian theology are Avicenna and Averroes.

Many passages of Enneads IV-VI, now known as Plotiniana Arabica, circulated among Islamic scholars ( as Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi and Avicenna ) under the name The Theology of Aristotle or quoted as " Sayings of an old man ".

: The municipality of Rimini here records the claim of their city to the family of the Ramusios, adorned during the 15th and 16th centuries by the illustrious jurist and man of letters Paolo the elder, who rendered the work of Valturius, our fellow-citizen, into the vernacular ; by the physician Girolamo, a most successful student of Oriental tongues, and the first to present Europe with a translation of Avicenna ; and by Giovanni Battista, cosmographer to the Venetian republic and secretary to the Council of Ten, who bequeathed to the world that famous collection of voyages and travels, regarded in his own day as a marvellous work, and still full of authority among all civilized nations.

** This German publication is both one of the most comprehensive general introductions to the life and works of the philosopher and physician Avicenna ( Ibn Sīnā, d. 1037 ) and an extensive and careful survey of his contribution to the history of science.

Thomas Aquinas ( c. 1225 – 1274 ), a theologian in Medieval Europe, adapted the argument he found in his reading of Aristotle and Avicenna to form one of the most influential versions of the cosmological argument.

Aristotle previously explained it in terms of vaporous exhalations, which Avicenna modified into the theory of petrifying fluids ( succus lapidificatus ), which was elaborated on by Albert of Saxony in the 14th century and accepted in some form by most naturalists by the 16th century.

The works of Galen and Avicenna, especially The Canon of Medicine which incorporated the teachings of both, were translated into Latin, and the Canon remained the most authoritative text on anatomy in European medical education until the 16th century.

Reflections on the nature of the connection and distinction between existence and essence dates back to Aristotle's Metaphysics, and it found one of its later most influential interpretations in the ontology of the eleventh century metaphysician Avicenna ( Ibn Sina ).

Grosseteste's most famous disciple, Roger Bacon, wrote works citing a wide range of recently translated optical and philosophical works, including those of Alhazen, Aristotle, Avicenna, Averroes, Euclid, al-Kindi, Ptolemy, Tideus, and Constantine the African.

Opium is mentioned in the most important medical texts of the ancient world, including the Ebers Papyrus and the writings of Dioscorides, Galen, and Avicenna.

The Persian physician Abū ‘ Alī al-Husayn ibn Sina (" Avicenna ") described opium as the most powerful of the stupefacients, by comparison with mandrake and other highly effective herbs, in The Canon of Medicine.

* 1025 – Avicenna of Persia publishes his influential treatise, The Canon of Medicine, which remains the most influential medical text in both Islamic and Christian lands for over six centuries, and The Book of Healing, a scientific encyclopedia.

The works of Galen and Avicenna, especially The Canon of Medicine which incorporated the teachings of both, were translated into Latin, and the Canon remained the most authoritative text on anatomy in European medical education until the 16th century.

As a mathematician, Khayyám has made fundamental contributions to the Philosophy of mathematics especially in the context of Persian Mathematics and Persian philosophy with which most of the other Persian scientists and philosophers such as Avicenna, Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī and Tusi are associated.

The Persian chemist Ibn Sina ( also known as Avicenna ) introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation, the procedure most commonly used today.

Though his own textbook was a major influence in medicine for many years, Osler described Avicenna as the ' author of the most famous medical textbook ever written.

However, this aspect of ontology is not the most central to the distinction that Avicenna established between essence and existence.

However, he says the most probable cause of this was that his writings never found popularity amongst subsequent influential philosophers such as al-Farabi and Avicenna, who ultimately overshadowed him.

* Al-Shefa, one of the most famous books of Avicenna ( Ibn Sina ); shefa is an Arabic word ( شفا ) meaning healing or recovery

Avicenna is one the most prominent figures of this period.

* Other significant contributions to scientific and mathematical understanding were made by Avicenna, who would later publish influential works on medicine, Persian Muslim polymath and scientist Abu Rayhan al-Biruni, Arab Egyptian Muslim mathematician and astronomer Ibn Yunus, Persian Muslim physicist and mathematician Abu Sahl al-Quhi ( Kuhi ) and Persian Muslim astronomer and mathematician, Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi.

Famous Persian scientist Ibn Sina ( known to the West as Avicenna ) produced treatises and works that summarized the vast amount of knowledge that scientists had accumulated, and was very influential through his encyclopedias, The Canon of Medicine and The Book of Healing.

Among other influential Muslim chemists, Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, Avicenna and Al-kindi refuted the theories of alchemy, particularly the theory of the transmutation of metals ; and al-Tusi described a version of the conservation of mass, noting that a body of matter is able to change but is not able to disappear.

Their knowledge on medicine was recorded in books that were influential in medical schools throughout Muslim history, and Ibn Sina in particular ( under his Latinized name Avicenna ) was also influential on the physicians of later medieval Europe.

In his book The Physician ( 1988 ) Noah Gordon tells the story of a young English medical apprentice who disguises himself as a Jew to learn from Avicenna, the great master of his time.

* The Canon of Medicine, a medical text written by Ibn Sina ( Avicenna )

The more extreme liberal movements began to challenge the role of authority in medicine, as exemplified by Paracelsus ' symbolically burning the works of Avicenna and Galen at his medical school in Basle.

Ibn Sina ( 980 – 1037 ), known by the Latin name Avicenna, was a medical researcher from Bukhara, Uzbekistan responsible for important contributions to the disciplines of physics, optics, philosophy and medicine.

Notable Islamic medical pioneers include the polymath, Avicenna, who, along with Imhotep and Hippocrates, has also been called the " father of medicine ".

* 1020s: The Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopedia, is written by Avicenna, Persian Muslim scholar.

* c. 1010 — Avicenna ( Abu Ali al Hussein ibn Abdallah ibn Sina ) published The Canon of Medicine ( Kitab al-Qanun fi al-tibb ), in which he introduces clinical trials and clinical pharmacology, and which remains an authoritative text in European medical education up until the 17th century.

In his Canon of Medicine ( a standard medical text at many medieval universities ), Persian polymath Avicenna ( 980 – 1037 AD ) extended the theory of temperaments to encompass " emotional aspects, mental capacity, moral attitudes, self-awareness, movements and dreams.

The earliest known treatises dealing with environmentalism and environmental science, especially pollution, were Arabic medical treatises written by al-Kindi, Qusta ibn Luqa, al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna, Ali ibn Ridwan, Ibn Jumay ‘, Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, Abd-el-latif, Ibn al-Quff, and Ibn al-Nafis.

In his medical writings, Avicenna was the first to describe the methods of agreement, difference and concomitant variation which are critical to inductive logic and the scientific method.

These early Greek and Roman compilations became the backbone of European medical theory and were translated by the Persian Avicenna ( Ibn Sīnā, 980 – 1037 ), the Persian Rhazes ( Rāzi, 865 – 925 ) and the Jewish Maimonides.

As a professor of medicine at the University of Basel, he dramatically burned classical medical texts by Theophrastus, Galen, Dioscorides and Avicenna, but not the works of Hippocrates.

Others associated with this period include Mesue Maior ( Masawaiyh, 777 – 857 CE ) who, in his Opera Medicinalia, synthesised the knowledge of Greeks, Persians, Arabs, Indians and Babylonians and this work was complemented by the medical encyclopaedia of Avicenna ( Ibn Sina, 980 – 1037 CE ).

It refers to a tradition of Graeco-Arabic medicine, which is based on the teachings of Greek physician Hippocrates, and Roman physician Galen, and developed into an elaborate medical System by Arab and Persian physicians, such as Rhazes, Avicenna ( Ibn Sena ), Al-Zahrawi, and Ibn Nafis.

Though the threads which comprise Unani healing can be traced all the way back to Claudius Galenus of Pergamum, who lived in the second century of the Christian Era and also to Ancient Iranian Medicine, the basic knowledge of Unani medicine as a healing system was developed by Hakim Ibn Sina ( known as Avicenna in the west ) in his medical encyclopedia The Canon of Medicine.

The popular medical encyclopedia is highly dependent upon the Qanun of Ibn Sina ( Avicenna ), with occasional passages transcribed verbatim.

In 1424 AD, Kirmani dedicated to Ulugh Beg his commentary on the medical compendium of Najib al-Din al-Samarqandi, and in 1437 AD he again dedicated to Ulugh Beg his popular commentary on The Canon of Medicine of Avicenna.