Aristotle, in " Politics ", claims that he made changes to land reforms “ family plots and the number of citizens should be kept equal, even if the citizens had all started with plots of unequal size .” We see a staunch tyrannical rule-giver.

Additional philosophical considerations, advanced notably by Aristotle, supported further the circularity principle.

Although ancient Greek philosophers believed in individual virtue ethics, philosophers like " Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics not accept the formal principle that whatever the good is, we should seek only our own good, or prefer it to the good of others.

His statement, regarded as a logical principle purely and apart from material facts, does not therefore amount to more than that of Aristotle, which deals simply with the significance of negation.

In Łukasiewicz 1951 book, Aristotle ’ s Syllogistic from the Standpoint of Modern Formal Logic, he mentions that the principle of his notation was to write the functors before the arguments to avoid brackets and that he had employed his notation in his logical papers since 1929.

In this benchmark text, Aristotle establishes the principle of " action " or " praxis " as the basis for all drama.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle ( 384 to 322 BCE ) understood the optical principle of the pinhole camera.

The principle of holism was concisely summarized by Aristotle in the Metaphysics: " The whole is more than the sum of its parts ".

Aristotle claimed that the male principle was the driver behind sex determination, such that if the male principle was insufficiently expressed during reproduction, the fetus would develop as a female.

Writing in the fourth century B. C., Aristotle also mentioned this principle.

As to the doctrine of God, Abraham ibn Daud, like Aristotle and his Arabic interpreters, proceeding from the principle of motion, and basing his argument upon the proof of the impossibility of a regressus in infinitum, arrives at the conception of a First Cause of all motion, or of a Prime Mover, who Himself, as First Cause, can not have any other cause of motion above Him, and must, therefore, be thought of as motionless.

Aristotle described the story of Thales, a poor philosopher from Miletus who developed a " financial device, which involves a principle of universal application ".

Aristotle was particularly concerned with the problem of future contingents, where he could not accept that the principle of bivalence applies to statements about future events, i. e. that we can presently decide if a statement about a future event is true or false, such as " there will be a sea battle tomorrow ".

Aristotle concerns himself with an effective structural element of the dramatic action, Szondi explains his tragic dialectic in an abstract sort of ' mode of action which follows on a unity of opposites ', as ' conversion of one state of affairs to its opposite ' a principle which, in its dramatic realizations, may take on many different forms and shapes.

In Book III of his Politics ( 1279a ), Aristotle seems to indicate that, in principle, politeia refers generically to any form of government or constitution, although he uses the word also to call a particular form of government: “ When the citizens at large govern for the public good, it is called by the name common to all governments ( politeion ), government ( politeia )”.

Proceeding on the principle that like can only be known by like, Trendelenburg next reaches a doctrine peculiar to himself ( though based upon Aristotle ) that plays a central part in his speculations.

Aristotle highlights " the fact that a thing is itself " because the objective of his inquiry at that point in the Metaphysics concerns " substance " and to provide answers to the question " what kind of thing substance should be said to be ", given that " substance is a principle and a cause " of being.

In his Metaphysics ( Book IV ), Aristotle gives the following explication of that linguistic principle which later came to be known as the Law of Identity: “ First then this at least is obviously true, that the word ' be ' or ' not be ' has a definite meaning, so that not everything will be “ so and not so ”.

Donald Devine has argued Meyer's synthesis is a first principle or axiom that is as valid as Strauss ’ monist first principle and relates this to Hayek ’ s critical rationalism philosophical tradition and those he identifies with it such as Aristotle, Cicero, Thomas Aquinas, Montesquieu, John Locke, Adam Smith and Lord Acton.

Thomas Aquinas adopted this principle from the Peripatetic school of Greek philosophy, established by Aristotle.

In his treatise on the Topics, Aristotle does not explicitly define a topos, though it is " at least primarily a strategy for argument not infrequently justified or explained by a principle.

Aristotle suggested instead that the ( nonphysical ) form-giving principle of an organism was transmitted through semen ( which he considered to be a purified form of blood ) and the mother's menstrual blood, which interacted in the womb to direct an organism's early development.

In ancient Greek Philosophy, Aristotle foregrounded the meaning of arche as the element or principle of a thing, which although undemonstrable and intangible in itself, provides the conditions of the possibility of that thing.

Aristotle also tended to stratify all aspects of human nature and activity into levels of excellence and, like Plato, he put the pure and unimpassioned intellect on the top level.

Once again Campanella engages in an explicit polemic with Aristotle, who had excluded artisans, peasants and those involved in manual labor from the category of full citizenship and from the highest levels of virtue.

( Stansbury-O ’ Donnell, 175 ) David Castriota, agreeing with Stansbury-O ’ Donnell ’ s statement, says that the main way Aristotle considered poetry and visual arts to be on equal levels was in character representation and its effect on action.

The role of judgment and disagreement in science has been recognized since Aristotle and even more clearly with Francis Bacon.

Popular leaders were writers of elegy — Solon the lawgiver of Athens composed on political and ethical subjects — and even Plato and Aristotle dabbled with the meter.

These paradoxes were very well known in ancient times, some are alluded to by Eubulides ' contemporary Aristotle and even partially by Plato.

Significantly, he values him only for his superstitious and astrological writings ; his scientific writings are dismissed because they contradict Aristotle, but excused on the ground that the author of the astrological works deserves to be listened to even when he is wrong.

Aristotle ( Metaphysics 983b – 987a ) believed that the question of first causes may even have started with Hesiod ( Theogony 116 – 53 ) and Homer ( Iliad 14. 201, 246 ).

Archimedes even tore apart the arguments of Aristotle and his metaphysics, pointing out that it was impossible to separate mathematics and nature and proved it by converting mathematical theories into practical inventions.

Metaphysics as a discipline was a central part of academic inquiry and scholarly education even before the age of Aristotle, who considered it " the Queen of Sciences.

Yet, even as he provided order to existing rhetorical theories, Aristotle extended the definition of rhetoric, calling it the ability to identify the appropriate means of persuasion in a given situation, thereby making rhetoric applicable to all fields, not just politics.

Debates concerning the nature, essence and the mode of existence of space date back to antiquity ; namely, to treatises like the Timaeus of Plato, or Socrates in his reflections on what the Greeks called khora ( i. e. " space "), or in the Physics of Aristotle ( Book IV, Delta ) in the definition of topos ( i. e. place ), or even in the later " geometrical conception of place " as " space qua extension " in the Discourse on Place ( Qawl fi al-Makan ) of the 11th century Arab polymath Alhazen.

As Newton attests, the Principia's first law of motion was known in antiquity, even by Aristotle, although its significance, as such, went unappreciated.

Aristotle even explicitly argues against some of the ideas that were demonstrated during the scientific revolution, such as heliocentrism.

Vesalius, undeterred, went on to stir up more controversy, this time disproving not just Galen but also Mondino de Liuzzi and even Aristotle ; all three had made assumptions about the functions and structure of the heart that were clearly wrong.

The origins of what has come to be known as Occam's razor are traceable to the works of earlier philosophers such as John Duns Scotus ( 1265 – 1308 ), Maimonides ( Moses ben-Maimon, 1138 – 1204 ), and even Aristotle ( 384 – 322 BC ) ( Charlesworth 1956 ).

Although philosophers of science and philosophers generally have long been interested in biology ( e. g., Aristotle, Descartes, Leibniz and even Kant ), philosophy of biology only emerged as an independent field of philosophy in the 1960s and 1970s.

( Also, according to Aristotle, a completed infinity cannot exist even as an idea in the mind of a human.

Philosophers, mathematicians, and others ancient and modern such as Aristotle, Plato, Frege, Wittgenstein, Russell etc., have made a distinction between thought corresponding to reality, coherent abstractions, and that which cannot even be rationally thought.

In the 4th century BCE, Aristotle noted that " sunlight travelling through small openings between the leaves of a tree, the holes of a sieve, the openings wickerwork, and even interlaced fingers will create circular patches of light on the ground.

Among the tide of Greek philosophy, three names tower above the rest: Socrates — even though he did not write anything himself, Plato, and Aristotle.

Nietzsche in " What I Owe to the Ancients " in his Twilight of the Idols wrote: " The psychology of the orgiastic as an overflowing feeling of life and strength, where even pain still has the effect of a stimulus, gave me the key to the concept of tragic feeling, which had been misunderstood both by Aristotle and even more by modern pessimists.

Not in order to be liberated from terror and pity, not in order to purge oneself of a dangerous affect by its vehement discharge — which is how Aristotle understood tragedy — but in order to celebrate oneself the eternal joy of becoming, beyond all terror and pity — that tragic joy included even joy in destruction.

Reviewing them, the Library Journal tells us: " Heraclitus, Aristotle, Kant, Hegel, and even Martin Buber have posited contraries and polarities in their philosophies.

For Aristotle, akrasia, " unrestraint ", is distinct from animal-like behavior because it is specific to humans and involves conscious rational thinking about what to do, even though the conclusions of this thinking are not put into practice.

Simplicius, as a Neoplatonist, endeavoured to show that Aristotle agrees with Plato even on those points which he controverts, so that he may lead the way to their deeper, hidden meaning.