By the mid-19th century scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the region.

By the mid-19th century, Bayonne had declined somewhat with the centralisation of power to Paris and to the new département capital, non-Basque Pau, after the 1789 French Revolution, and with Wellington's bombardment.

By the mid-19th century, however, the powerful British Empire gave up mercantilism and trade restrictions and introduced the principle of free trade, with few restrictions or tariffs.

By the mid-19th century, English was the majority language spoken in the country.

By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the " sick man " by Europeans.

By the mid-19th century, the story had gained currency.

By the mid-19th century, " King Cotton " had become the backbone of the southern American economy.

By the mid-19th century, the Norfolk four-course system was widely adopted throughout Europe.

By the mid-19th century, all respectable families had moved away, and prostitutes, music halls and small theatres had moved in.

By the mid-19th century, the increasing pace of business communication had created a need for mechanization of the writing process.

By the mid-19th century, many operas became a sequence of arias, reducing the space left for recitative, while other operas ( for instance those by Wagner ) were entirely through-composed, with no section being readily identifiable as a self-contained aria.

By the mid-19th century, the Comanche were supplying horses to French and American traders and settlers and later to migrants passing through their territory on the way to the California Gold Rush.

By the mid-19th century, the Cheyenne had mostly abandoned their earlier sedentary agricultural and pottery traditions because of changed conditions.

By the mid-19th century, the word " babr " had fallen out of common usage, but it was still recorded in the Armorial of the Russian Empire.

By the mid-19th century, the Japanese soy sauce gradually disappeared from the European market, and soy sauce became synonymous with the Chinese product.

By the mid-19th century, the city on the Volga was firmly established as the trade capital of the Russian Empire.

By mid-19th century, the population grew to around 7, 500, with 40 % of them Jewish.

By the mid-19th century, the doughnut looked and tasted like today ’ s doughnut, and was viewed as a thoroughly American food.

By the late 18th century and into the mid-19th century, Russian settlers had established several posts and communities on the northeast Pacific coast, eventually reaching as far south as Fort Ross, California.

By the mid-19th century, Columbia had become a busy transportation hub with its ferry, bridge, canal, railroad and wharves.

By the mid-19th century parts of Bermondsey, especially along the riverside had become a notorious slum — with the arrival of industrial plants, docks and immigrant housing.

By the mid-19th century, the accepted theory was that lightning produced a vacuum.

By the mid-19th century, Stafford was connected by railroad to markets across New England, and before the State Highway projects of the 1920s and 1930s, the town had a trolley connection to Rockville, CT.

By the mid-19th century, the small town of Jacob was Jackson County's first black community.

By the mid-19th century, Acton was an industrial center for the production of barrels ( cooperage ).

By the end of the nineteenth century, in 1893, when the Big Three, Columbia, and Penn were populous centers of learning, Dartmouth graduated only sixty-nine.

By the end of the century the Roman Catholic Church was beginning to make itself felt, mainly through such institutions as hospitals but also through its attitude towards organized labour.

By the 27th century BC Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs which are called uniliterals, to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel ( or no vowel ) to be supplied by the native speaker.

By the tenth century two other forms can be distinguished namely Canaanite and Aramaic.

By the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by various Anatolian beyliks.

By the 6th century BC, the Celtic La Tène culture was well established.

By the late 5th century BC, philosophers might separate Aphrodite into two separate goddesses, not individuated in cult: Aphrodite Ourania, born from the sea foam after Cronus castrated Uranus, and Aphrodite Pandemos, the common Aphrodite " of all the folk ," born from Zeus and Dione.

By the beginning of the 8th century, these kingdoms had either been conquered by Nicene neighbors ( Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians ) or their rulers had accepted Nicene Christianity ( Visigoths, Lombards ).

By the middle of the 19th century, industrialisation swept away most of the city's medieval rules of production and commerce, although the entirely corrupt remains of the city's mediæval constitution was kept in place ( compare the famous remarks of Georg Forster in his Ansichten vom Niederrhein ) until 1801, when Aachen became the " chef-lieu du département de la Roer " in Napoléon's First French Empire.

By the 6th century Alexander's commentaries on Aristotle were considered so useful that he was referred to as " the commentator " ().

By the mid-4th century however the assembly's judicial functions were largely curtailed, though it always kept a role in the initiation of various kinds of political trial.

By the mid-16th century, they were in common use in most of Europe.

By the standards of 19th century tycoons, Carnegie was not a particularly ruthless man but a humanitarian with enough acquisitiveness to go in the ruthless pursuit of money ; on the other hand, the contrast between his life and the lives of many of his own workers and of the poor, in general, was stark.

By the 7th century BC, much of the Assyrian population used Akkadian influenced Eastern Aramaic and not Akkadian itself.

By the 4th century AD artists had started debating in writing over the proper goals of art as well.

By the end of the twentieth century " Negro " had come to be considered inappropriate and was rarely used and perceived as a pejorative.

By the early 5th century Britain had been Roman for over three hundred and fifty years.

By the 1st century BC, Aediles were elected in July, and took office on the first day in January.

By the 16th century, a cappella polyphony had further developed, but gradually, the cantata began to take the place of a cappella forms.

By the 19th century orchestral music in Europe had standardized the string section into the following homogeneous instrumental groups: first violins, second violins, violas, cellos, and double basses.

By the 3rd century BC, the rival armies of Carthage and Rome began to invade and fight for control of the Iberian Peninsula.

By the 5th century AD, Rome was in decline and the Roman predecessor town of Alicante, known as Lucentum ( Latin ), was more or less under the control of the Visigothic warlord Theudimer.

By the end of the 18th century there were no factories or mills and only a few small cottage industries along the border with Zurich.

By the beginning of the twentieth century, Steiner's interests turned to explicitly spiritual areas of research.