By the time of the rediscovery of the Roman law in Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries, the common law had already developed far enough to prevent a Roman law reception as it occurred on the continent.

By the mid-to-late 13th century, the Chinese had adopted the dogma of Neo-Confucian philosophy formulated by Zhu Xi.

Coal ( from the Old English term col, which has meant " mineral of fossilized carbon " since the 13th century ) is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds By comparison in 2007, natural gas provided of oil equivalent per day, while oil provided per day.

By the 12th to 13th centuries A. D., monks were preparing illuminated manuscripts on vellum and parchment in monasteries throughout Europe and were using lead styli to draw lines for their writings and for the outlines for their illuminations.

By the late 13th century, rich Europeans began to grow gardens for leisure and for medicinal herbs and vegetables.

By the 13th century, shoes were forged in large quantities and could be bought ready-made.

By the 13th century, Hindustān emerged as a popular alternative name of India, meaning the " land of Hindus ".< ref >

By the late 13th century, the Siamese kings of Sukhothai had brought most of Malaya under their rule.

By population, it ranks 13th, having fewer inhabitants than Borneo or Sulawesi, but more than Salsette ( Mumbai ) or Cuba.

By the 13th century, Kanem's rule expanded.

By the time of the largest expansion towards Kievan Rus ' lands, at the end of the 13th and during the 14th century, the territory of the GDL was about 800, 000 km < sup > 2 </ sup >, of which 10 % was ethnically Lithuanian.

By the 13th century, tanka had become the dominant form of Japanese poetry, and it is still widely written today.

By at least the 13th century, he had become identified with the Irish Saint Ciarán of Saighir who founded the monastery at Seir-Kieran ( Saighir ) in County Offaly.

By the late 13th century, the monarch of the Samudra kingdom had converted to Islam.

By the 13th century this revision had come to be called the versio vulgata, that is, the " commonly used translation ", and ultimately it became the definitive and officially promulgated Latin version of the Bible in the Roman Catholic Church.

By the end of the 13th century most of the Prussian region, including Warmia, was conquered and Christianized by the Teutonic Order.

By most accounts, the earliest Arabic and Latin descriptions of the purification of saltpeter do not appear until the 13th century.

By the 13th century the following major counties had developed in Estonia: Saaremaa ( Osilia ), Läänemaa ( Rotalia or Maritima ), Harjumaa ( Harria ), Rävala ( Revalia ), Virumaa ( Vironia ), Järvamaa ( Jervia ), Sakala ( Saccala ), and Ugandi ( Ugaunia ).

By the 13th century, candle making had become a guild craft in England and France.

By calculating the area under the relevant portion of the graph for 50 trials, the archaeologist can say that there is practically no chance the site was inhabited in the 11th and 12th centuries, about 1 % chance that it was inhabited during the 13th century, 63 % chance during the 14th century and 36 % during the 15th century.

By the end of the 13th century the linguistic border had shifted to the river Lys in the south and Cap-Griz-Nez in the west.

By the 12th to 13th centuries AD, magnetic compasses were used in navigation in China, Europe, and elsewhere.

By the 13th century, there were as many as twenty thousand foreign students resident in the city, making Paris the capital of knowledge of the Western world.

By the 13th century, Puebloans used turkey feather blankets for warmth.

By the end of the nineteenth century, in 1893, when the Big Three, Columbia, and Penn were populous centers of learning, Dartmouth graduated only sixty-nine.

By the end of the century the Roman Catholic Church was beginning to make itself felt, mainly through such institutions as hospitals but also through its attitude towards organized labour.

By the 27th century BC Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs which are called uniliterals, to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel ( or no vowel ) to be supplied by the native speaker.

By the tenth century two other forms can be distinguished namely Canaanite and Aramaic.

By the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by various Anatolian beyliks.

By the 6th century BC, the Celtic La Tène culture was well established.

By the mid-19th century scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the region.

By the late 5th century BC, philosophers might separate Aphrodite into two separate goddesses, not individuated in cult: Aphrodite Ourania, born from the sea foam after Cronus castrated Uranus, and Aphrodite Pandemos, the common Aphrodite " of all the folk ," born from Zeus and Dione.

By the beginning of the 8th century, these kingdoms had either been conquered by Nicene neighbors ( Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians ) or their rulers had accepted Nicene Christianity ( Visigoths, Lombards ).

By the middle of the 19th century, industrialisation swept away most of the city's medieval rules of production and commerce, although the entirely corrupt remains of the city's mediæval constitution was kept in place ( compare the famous remarks of Georg Forster in his Ansichten vom Niederrhein ) until 1801, when Aachen became the " chef-lieu du département de la Roer " in Napoléon's First French Empire.

By the 6th century Alexander's commentaries on Aristotle were considered so useful that he was referred to as " the commentator " ().

By the mid-4th century however the assembly's judicial functions were largely curtailed, though it always kept a role in the initiation of various kinds of political trial.

By the mid-16th century, they were in common use in most of Europe.

By the standards of 19th century tycoons, Carnegie was not a particularly ruthless man but a humanitarian with enough acquisitiveness to go in the ruthless pursuit of money ; on the other hand, the contrast between his life and the lives of many of his own workers and of the poor, in general, was stark.

By the 7th century BC, much of the Assyrian population used Akkadian influenced Eastern Aramaic and not Akkadian itself.

By the 4th century AD artists had started debating in writing over the proper goals of art as well.

By the end of the twentieth century " Negro " had come to be considered inappropriate and was rarely used and perceived as a pejorative.

By the early 5th century Britain had been Roman for over three hundred and fifty years.

By the 1st century BC, Aediles were elected in July, and took office on the first day in January.

By the 16th century, a cappella polyphony had further developed, but gradually, the cantata began to take the place of a cappella forms.

By the 19th century orchestral music in Europe had standardized the string section into the following homogeneous instrumental groups: first violins, second violins, violas, cellos, and double basses.

By the 3rd century BC, the rival armies of Carthage and Rome began to invade and fight for control of the Iberian Peninsula.

By the 5th century AD, Rome was in decline and the Roman predecessor town of Alicante, known as Lucentum ( Latin ), was more or less under the control of the Visigothic warlord Theudimer.

By the end of the 18th century there were no factories or mills and only a few small cottage industries along the border with Zurich.

By the beginning of the twentieth century, Steiner's interests turned to explicitly spiritual areas of research.