By the early 20th century the Liberals stance began to shift towards " New Liberalism ", what would today be called social liberalism: a belief in personal liberty with a support for government intervention to provide minimum levels of welfare.

By the early 20th century, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and Serbia had achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire, but large parts of their ethnic populations remained under Ottoman rule.

By the mid 20th century, with the growing market for rare coins, the Sheldon system was adopted by the American Numismatic Association and most coin professionals in the North America.

By the end of the 20th century, Cambridge had one of the most expensive housing markets in the Northeastern United States.

By the turn of the 20th century, it had grown customary to abbreviate the name violoncello to ' cello, with the apostrophe indicating the six missing prefix letters.

By the early 20th century, with the lumber depleted, the timber industry was in decline.

By the early 20th century, infantry weapons had become more powerful, forcing most artillery away from the front lines.

By 1976 the cost of the cheapest 4-function pocket calculator had dropped to a few dollars, about one 20th of the cost five years earlier.

By the late 20th century the recognition of practical knowledge as equal to academic knowledge led to the emergence of practice research and practice as research.

By the 20th century the novel had come to occupy a canonical space as one of the foundations of modern literature.

By the late 20th century, encyclopedias were being published on CD-ROMs for use with personal computers.

By the end of the 20th century, Japan was the only country with an emperor on the throne.

By the end of the 20th century, most handguns carried regularly by military, police and civilians were semi-automatic, although revolvers were still widely used.

By the early 20th century, radiometric dating allowed the Earth's age to be estimated at two billion years.

By the late 20th century, Hong Kong was the seventh largest port in the world and second only to New York and Rotterdam in terms of container throughput.

By the 20th century, earlier mechanical calculators, cash registers, accounting machines, and so on were redesigned to use electric motors, with gear position as the representation for the state of a variable.

By the beginning of the 20th century, Western scholars of Islam started to critically engage with the Islamic texts, subjecting them to the same agnostic, searching scrutiny that had previously been applied to Christian texts ( see higher criticism ).

By the late 20th century religion had declined to only a weak force in most of Europe.

By the end of the 20th century, microtechnology had been used to create tiny robotic devices to assist microsurgery using micro-video and fiber-optic cameras to view internal tissues during surgery with minimally invasive practices.

By the early 20th century Dutch dominance extended to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries.

By the end of the war, Italian per capita income was at its lowest point since the beginning of the 20th century.

By the turn of the 20th century, the heyday of individualist anarchism had passed, although aspects of the individualist anarchist tradition were later revived with modifications by Murray Rothbard and his anarcho-capitalism in the mid-20th century, as a current of the broader libertarian movement.

By the end of the 20th century, it was concluded that some convicts could not be treated and therefore could not be safely released into society.

By the late 20th century, most nations of the former empire had officially adopted the metric system as their main system of measurement, although as of 2011 the United Kingdom had only partially adopted it.

By the first decade of the 20th century, a number of business entities had formed themselves into trusts, which dominated their industries.

By the end of the nineteenth century, in 1893, when the Big Three, Columbia, and Penn were populous centers of learning, Dartmouth graduated only sixty-nine.

By the end of the century the Roman Catholic Church was beginning to make itself felt, mainly through such institutions as hospitals but also through its attitude towards organized labour.

By the 27th century BC Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs which are called uniliterals, to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel ( or no vowel ) to be supplied by the native speaker.

By the tenth century two other forms can be distinguished namely Canaanite and Aramaic.

By the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by various Anatolian beyliks.

By the 6th century BC, the Celtic La Tène culture was well established.

By the mid-19th century scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the region.

By the late 5th century BC, philosophers might separate Aphrodite into two separate goddesses, not individuated in cult: Aphrodite Ourania, born from the sea foam after Cronus castrated Uranus, and Aphrodite Pandemos, the common Aphrodite " of all the folk ," born from Zeus and Dione.

By the beginning of the 8th century, these kingdoms had either been conquered by Nicene neighbors ( Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians ) or their rulers had accepted Nicene Christianity ( Visigoths, Lombards ).

By the middle of the 19th century, industrialisation swept away most of the city's medieval rules of production and commerce, although the entirely corrupt remains of the city's mediæval constitution was kept in place ( compare the famous remarks of Georg Forster in his Ansichten vom Niederrhein ) until 1801, when Aachen became the " chef-lieu du département de la Roer " in Napoléon's First French Empire.

By the 6th century Alexander's commentaries on Aristotle were considered so useful that he was referred to as " the commentator " ().

By the mid-4th century however the assembly's judicial functions were largely curtailed, though it always kept a role in the initiation of various kinds of political trial.

By the mid-16th century, they were in common use in most of Europe.

By the standards of 19th century tycoons, Carnegie was not a particularly ruthless man but a humanitarian with enough acquisitiveness to go in the ruthless pursuit of money ; on the other hand, the contrast between his life and the lives of many of his own workers and of the poor, in general, was stark.

By the 7th century BC, much of the Assyrian population used Akkadian influenced Eastern Aramaic and not Akkadian itself.

By the 4th century AD artists had started debating in writing over the proper goals of art as well.

By the end of the twentieth century " Negro " had come to be considered inappropriate and was rarely used and perceived as a pejorative.

By the early 5th century Britain had been Roman for over three hundred and fifty years.

By the 1st century BC, Aediles were elected in July, and took office on the first day in January.

By the 16th century, a cappella polyphony had further developed, but gradually, the cantata began to take the place of a cappella forms.

By the 19th century orchestral music in Europe had standardized the string section into the following homogeneous instrumental groups: first violins, second violins, violas, cellos, and double basses.

By the 3rd century BC, the rival armies of Carthage and Rome began to invade and fight for control of the Iberian Peninsula.

By the 5th century AD, Rome was in decline and the Roman predecessor town of Alicante, known as Lucentum ( Latin ), was more or less under the control of the Visigothic warlord Theudimer.

By the end of the 18th century there were no factories or mills and only a few small cottage industries along the border with Zurich.

By the beginning of the twentieth century, Steiner's interests turned to explicitly spiritual areas of research.