By one estimate, it has the fourth highest gross national income at purchasing power parity in Africa, giving it a standard of living around that of Mexico and Turkey.

By 1704, the War of the Spanish Succession was in its fourth year.

By 1781 three more societies had been established in Birmingham, with a fourth in the nearby town of Dudley ; and 19 more formed in Birmingham between 1782 and 1795.

By the fourth century, however, " confessors "— people who had confessed their faith not by dying but by word and life — began to be venerated publicly.

By the fourth beta version, Valve Software, the developer who created Half-Life, began assisting in the development of Counter-Strike.

By the mid 19th century, the South, The city of New Orleans in particular, being situated as a key to commerce on the Mississippi River and in the Gulf, had become the largest U. S. city not on the Atlantic seaboard and the fourth largest in the U. S. overall.

By the fourth century, the Goths conquered Dacia, and were divided into at least two distinct groups separated by the Dniester River, the Thervingi, led by the Balti dynasty, and the Greuthungi, led by the Amali dynasty.

By the fourth century BC Persia had fallen into decline.

By the fourth battle, the British have fled to the Isle of Thanet, where Vortigern's son Vortimer there besieges them.

By adding a fourth dimension to the three dimensional space, the self-intersection can be eliminated.

By the late 1810s, it was not uncommon to dance a series of quadrilles during the evening, generally consisting of the same first three figures combined with a variety of different fourth and fifth figures.

By the time Christopher Columbus passed near St. Vincent on his fourth voyage in 1502, the Caribs occupied the island after displacing the Arawaks a few centuries earlier.

By this point Prokofiev had composed two more operas, Desert Islands and The Feast during the Plague, and was working on his fourth, Undine.

By winning all three of the cups at the 100cc level, a fourth cup – the Special cup – is unlocked.

By the end of the game, Elway was sacked five times and threw three interceptions, and Washington scored another touchdown on a 68-yard fourth quarter drive featuring a 25-yard run by Clark on a reverse and three runs by Smith for 43 yards, the last a 4-yard touchdown to bring the game to its final score of 42 – 10.

By area Turkmenistan ranks fourth among the former Soviet republics, after Russia, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine.

By the end of the fourth century the Presbyter ( author of 2 and 3 John ) was thought to be a different person to the Apostle John.

By 2000, it was Italy's fourth most widely planted white wine grape.

By the dawn of the fourth century BC, however, the neighbouring tribes had all been either subdued or conquered, and the stage was set for the rise of Qin expansionism.

By the end of the 7th century a fourth kindred, Cenél Comgaill ( kindred of Comgall ), had emerged, based in eastern Argyll.

By December 1943, these Secondary Schools had reached their capacity, and a major portion of Navy Pier was quickly converted to a fourth school.

By the fourth century, when pagan beliefs gave way to Christianity, belief in literal sirens was discouraged.

By the time the group's fourth album Strangeways, Here We Come was released in September, the band had split up.

By the end of the fourth millennium BC, donkey had spread to Southwest Asia, and the main breeding center had shifted to Mesopotamia by 1800 BC.

By 1955, the Russians agreed to relinquish their occupation zones in Eastern Austria, and East Vienna, as well as their sector in the fourth and tenth districts in South Vienna.

By the end of the nineteenth century, in 1893, when the Big Three, Columbia, and Penn were populous centers of learning, Dartmouth graduated only sixty-nine.

By the end of the century the Roman Catholic Church was beginning to make itself felt, mainly through such institutions as hospitals but also through its attitude towards organized labour.

By the 27th century BC Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs which are called uniliterals, to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel ( or no vowel ) to be supplied by the native speaker.

By the tenth century two other forms can be distinguished namely Canaanite and Aramaic.

By the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by various Anatolian beyliks.

By the 6th century BC, the Celtic La Tène culture was well established.

By the mid-19th century scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the region.

By the late 5th century BC, philosophers might separate Aphrodite into two separate goddesses, not individuated in cult: Aphrodite Ourania, born from the sea foam after Cronus castrated Uranus, and Aphrodite Pandemos, the common Aphrodite " of all the folk ," born from Zeus and Dione.

By the beginning of the 8th century, these kingdoms had either been conquered by Nicene neighbors ( Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians ) or their rulers had accepted Nicene Christianity ( Visigoths, Lombards ).

By the middle of the 19th century, industrialisation swept away most of the city's medieval rules of production and commerce, although the entirely corrupt remains of the city's mediæval constitution was kept in place ( compare the famous remarks of Georg Forster in his Ansichten vom Niederrhein ) until 1801, when Aachen became the " chef-lieu du département de la Roer " in Napoléon's First French Empire.

By the 6th century Alexander's commentaries on Aristotle were considered so useful that he was referred to as " the commentator " ().

By the mid-4th century however the assembly's judicial functions were largely curtailed, though it always kept a role in the initiation of various kinds of political trial.

By the mid-16th century, they were in common use in most of Europe.

By the standards of 19th century tycoons, Carnegie was not a particularly ruthless man but a humanitarian with enough acquisitiveness to go in the ruthless pursuit of money ; on the other hand, the contrast between his life and the lives of many of his own workers and of the poor, in general, was stark.

By the 7th century BC, much of the Assyrian population used Akkadian influenced Eastern Aramaic and not Akkadian itself.

By the 4th century AD artists had started debating in writing over the proper goals of art as well.

By the end of the twentieth century " Negro " had come to be considered inappropriate and was rarely used and perceived as a pejorative.

By the early 5th century Britain had been Roman for over three hundred and fifty years.

By the 1st century BC, Aediles were elected in July, and took office on the first day in January.

By the 16th century, a cappella polyphony had further developed, but gradually, the cantata began to take the place of a cappella forms.

By the 19th century orchestral music in Europe had standardized the string section into the following homogeneous instrumental groups: first violins, second violins, violas, cellos, and double basses.

By the 3rd century BC, the rival armies of Carthage and Rome began to invade and fight for control of the Iberian Peninsula.

By the 5th century AD, Rome was in decline and the Roman predecessor town of Alicante, known as Lucentum ( Latin ), was more or less under the control of the Visigothic warlord Theudimer.

By the end of the 18th century there were no factories or mills and only a few small cottage industries along the border with Zurich.

By the beginning of the twentieth century, Steiner's interests turned to explicitly spiritual areas of research.