The Caliph ( /) is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the ruler of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari ' ah.

Caliph Al-Walid I's reign is considered as the apex of Islamic power, though Islamic power in Spain specifically climaxed in the 10th century under Abd-ar-Rahman III.

Muslim historians say that Caliph Uthman ibn Affan ( the third khalifa ( caliph ) of the Rashidun Empire, or third successor of Muhammad, who had formerly been Muhammad's secretary ), is generally believed to urge Muslims to record the hadith just as Muhammad suggested to some of his followers to write down his words and actions.

* 1924 – The 1400-year-old Islamic caliphate is abolished when Caliph Abdul Mejid II of the Ottoman Empire is deposed.

In the ninth century, it is reported that the Muslim Caliph Al-Ma ' mun tolerated a community of Manichaeans.

* 680 – Battle of Karbala: Hussain bin Ali, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, is decapitated by forces under Caliph Yazid I.

The tradition of lanterns as a decoration becoming associated with Ramadan is believed to have originated during the Fatimid Caliphate primarily centered in Egypt, where the Caliph Al-Muizz Lideenillah was greeted by people holding lanterns to celebrate his ruling.

The Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur is said to have ordered this canal closed in 767 to prevent supplies from reaching Arabian detractors.

* March 3 – The 1, 400-year-old Islamic caliphate is abolished when Caliph Abdul Mejid II of the Ottoman Empire is deposed.

* 661: Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib is assassinated.

He is succeeded by Hasan ibn Ali but abdicated the Caliph to Muawiyah I.

* 750: The last Umayyad Caliph Marwan II ( 744 – 750 ) is overthrown and executed by the first Abbasid Caliph, Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah.

* November 19 – Abdul Mejid II, Crown Prince of the Ottoman Empire, is elected Caliph.

* The city of Basra, Iraq, is founded on a canal by Caliph Umar.

* After the defeat of his army in the Battle of the Zab the last Umayyad Caliph, Marwan II, is overthrown and killed.

Al-Saffah is proclaimed the first Abbasid Caliph.

* October 18 – The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is destroyed by Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.

* Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib is assassinated ; with his assassination the Rashidun Caliphate ends and Muawiyah I founds the Umayyad caliphate.

* Ahmad ibn Fadlan is sent from Baghdad to the king of the Volga Bulgars, on behalf of the Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir.

* Umayyad Caliphate: Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan dies and is succeeded by his son al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik.

* Umayyad Caliph al-Walid I is succeeded by Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik.

The Abbasid Caliph al-Mamun noticed Hunayn's talents and placed him in charge of the House of Wisdom, “ Bayt al Hikmah .” The House of Wisdom was an institution where Greek works were translated and made available to scholars.

He ruled over the Rashidun Caliphate from 632 – 634 CE when he became the first Muslim Caliph following Muhammad's death.

When Caliph al-Mu ' izz li Din Allah finally arrived from the old Fatimid capital of Mahdia in Tunisia in 973, he gave the city its present name, al-Qahira (" The Victorious ").

The chief theological opponents of iconoclasm were the monks Mansur ( John of Damascus ), who, living in Muslim territory as advisor to the Caliph of Damascus, was far enough away from the Byzantine emperor to evade retribution, and Theodore the Studite, abbot of the Stoudios monastery in Constantinople.

But facing their own difficulties, the Zirids were unable to prevent Morocco from spinning out of their control and crumbling into the hands of a collection of local Zenata Berber chieftains, most of them clients of the Caliph of Cordoba, such as the Maghrawa in the region of Fez and their on-again, off-again rivals, the Banu Ifran, just east of them.

The Alaouite family claim descent from Muhammad through the line of Fāṭimah az-Zahrah, Muhammad's daughter, and her husband, the Fourth Caliph ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib.

The opportunity came from the Khilafat movement, a worldwide protest by Muslims against the collapsing status of the Caliph, the leader of their religion.

Then, in 929 the Emir of Córdoba ( Abd-ar-Rahman III ), the leader of the Umayyad dynasty, declared himself Caliph, independent from the Abbasids in Baghdad.

" Orders " ( ṭuruq ), which are either Sunnī or Shī ' ī or mixed in doctrine, trace many of their original precepts from the Islamic Prophet Muhammad through his cousin ' Alī, with the notable exception of the Naqshbandi who trace their origins through the first Caliph, Abu Bakr.

* At-Ta ' i, the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad from 974 to 991

The first camp essentially agrees with Gibbon, and the other argues that the Battle has been massively overstated — turned from a raid in force to an invasion, and from a mere annoyance to the Caliph to a shattering defeat that helped end the Islamic Expansion Era.

In 929, Abd ar-Rahman III assumed the title of Caliph, establishing Al Andalus from Córdoba as a rival to Baghdad as the legitimate capital of the Islamic Empire.

Leo ’ s reign coincided with that of the third Abbasid Caliph, Al-Mahdi, who invaded Byzantine lands on successive occasions from 777 – 780 before ultimately being repulsed by Leo ’ s armies, led by generals such as Michael Lachanodrakon.

Freely adapted from One Thousand and One Nights, it tells the story of a thief who falls in love with the daughter of the Caliph of Bagdad.

Razi moved from Rey to Baghdad during Caliph Muktafi's reign ( approx.

Umar, on his death bed formed a committee of six people to choose the next Caliph from amongst themselves.

Uthman obtained the complete manuscript of the Qur ' an from Hafsah, one of the wives of the Islamic prophet Muhammad who had been entrusted to keep the manuscript ever since the Qur ' an was comprehensively compiled by the first Caliph, Abu Bakr.

In 711, Tariq ibn Ziyad, under the orders of the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I, led a large army from the north coast of Morocco on April 29 711.

Ibn Fadlan was sent from Baghdad in 921 to serve as the secretary to an ambassador from the Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir to the iltäbär ( vassal-king under the Khazars ) of the Volga Bulgaria, Almış.

Al-Mansur or Abu Ja ' far Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Mansur ( 95 AH – 158 AH ( 714 AD – 775 AD ); ) was the second Abbasid Caliph from 136 AH to 158 AH ( 754 AD – 775 AD ).

The Caliph al-Nasir ( Miramamolín in the Spanish chronicles ) led the Almohad army, made up of people from the whole Almohad empire.