Courts interpreting the Code generally seek to harmonize their interpretations with those of other states that have adopted the same or a similar provision.

Courts have generally ruled that the use of force may be acceptable.

Though justice courts constitutionally are part of the New York State Unified Court System, state law generally makes justice courts independent of New York's Office of Court Administration ( OCA ) and instead makes Justice Courts the responsibility of their sponsoring localities.

Under that ruling, Courts generally do not hear motions to quash Congressional subpoenas ; even when executive branch officials refuse to comply, the Courts tend to rule that such matters are " political questions " unsuitable for judicial remedy.

Myers notes, " Courts that have considered penile plethysmography generally rule that the technique is not sufficiently reliable for use in court.

Between 1937 and 1961 the courts provided for by the Constitution of the Irish Free State and the Courts of Justice Act 1924 continued their work under the Transitory Provisions of the Constitution of 1937, in which Articles 34 to 37 deal with the administration of justice generally.

The Court of Appeal generally hears all civil appeals against decisions of the High Courts except where against judgment or orders made by consent.

In criminal matters, First Class Magistrates ' Courts generally have power to try all offences of which the maximum term of imprisonment does not exceed 10 years or which are punishable with fine only, but may pass sentences of not more than five years imprisonment, a fine of up to RM10, 000, and / or up to twelve strokes of the cane.

The Syariah Courts have jurisdiction only over matters involving Muslims, and can generally only pass sentences of not more than three years imprisonment, a fine of up to RM5, 000, and / or up to six strokes of the cane.

These are the Supreme Courts, in each state and territory, and the High Court of Australia for the country generally.

While the Courts have never brightly defined how to determine if an interest is compelling, the concept generally refers to something necessary or crucial, as opposed to something merely preferred.

Courts generally look at the turnover of an investment account, or the number of times the investment capital has been re-invested during a year.

Courts generally have rejected challenges to the tax-free status of non-profit hospitals by indigent patients who are forced to pay for services on the grounds that the question is a matter for the IRS and that the indigent patients lacking standing.

Sir George Campbell, Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal from 1871-1874, intended “ to render the heads of districts no longer the drudges of many departments and masters of none, but in fact the general controlling authority over all departments in each district ... he has, therefore, striven to make the Magistrate-Collector of a great Bengal district, generally comprising one and a half to two and a half millions of inhabitants, the real executive chief and administrator of the tract of county committed to him, and supreme over everyone and everything except the proceedings of the Courts of Justice.

Courts that do recognize this defense generally apply it only where the defendant completely and voluntarily renounces any criminal purpose ( Understanding Criminal Law, J. Dressler, 2006 ).

Courts generally have the power to appoint a guardian for an individual in need of special protection.

In order to have full rights of audience in the Irish Courts a qualified barrister must devil for at least one year. The work is generally unpaid and there is no obligation on the Master to pay the Devil.

The Circuit Courts of Appeals can interpret the law how they want, so long as there is no binding Supreme Court precedent.

' Courts called on to interpret it have applied a wide variety of standards, with little agreement.

The draft included the creation of a Supreme Court of Australia, which would not only interpret the Constitution, like the United States Supreme Court, but also would be a court of appeal from the state Supreme Courts.

Others believe that, under Article II, the principal duty of the President is to execute the law ; that, under Article I, the law is what the lawmaker — e. g. Congress, in the case of statutory contempt — says it is and the Executive Branch cannot either define the meaning of the law ( such powers of legislation being reserved to Congress ) or interpret the law ( such powers being reserved to the several Federal Courts ); any attempt by the Executive to define or interpret the law would be a violation of the separation of powers ; the Executive may only — and is obligated to — execute the law consistent with its definition and interpretation ; and if the law specifies a duty on one of the President's subordinates, then the President must " take care " to see that the duty specified in the law is executed.

Courts frequently call upon expert testimony to interpret and advise, after examining medical records concerning the nature of injuries, future medical, disability and other issues before the court.

Courts have developed several techniques for interpreting the meaning of statutes and these are also used to interpret the Constitution.

His argument is based on the role of judicial review and how the Courts must not go about creating rights not explicitly found in the Charter nor interpret Charter rights to protect interests that the rights were not initially intending to protect.

" To which he concluded, that Courts must interpret contracts " fairly and broadly " following the maxim that " Words are to be so understood that the subject-matter may be preserved rather than destroyed.

Courts interpret covenants relatively strictly and give the words of the agreement their ordinary meaning.

The constitution of New Zealand consists of a collection of statutes ( Acts of Parliament ), Treaties, Orders-in-Council, Letters patent, decisions of the Courts and unwritten constitutional conventions.

Courts of general jurisdiction may decline to apply ( 1 ) any law that violates the Constitution and ( 2 ) any normative regulations, in particular subordinate regulations that contravene statutes.

In ruling on the disputes between Prop 22 and the domestic partnership enactments, California Courts of Appeal have reached differing conclusions as to Prop 22's scope within the marriage statutes.

The court hears certain appeals from all of the United States District Courts, appeals from certain administrative agencies, and appeals arising under certain statutes.

Courts have held that defendants cannot escape the reach of these statutes by deliberately shielding themselves, from clear evidence of critical facts that are strongly suggested by the circumstances, understanding that those who behave in such manner should be treated as those who had actual knowledge.

The reception of English law was clarified by the Australian Courts Act 1828, which provided that all laws and statutes in force in England at the date of the enactment of the legislation should be applied in the courts of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land ( Tasmania ) so far as they were applicable.

Courts are reluctant to create new torts out of criminal statutes.

Wujcik also expressed a desire to create a book giving greater detail to the Courts of Chaos.

Included in the Senate's ratification was the declaration that " the provisions of Article 1 through 27 of the Covenant are not self-executing ", and in a Senate Executive Report stated that the declaration was meant to " clarify that the Covenant will not create a private cause of action in U. S. Courts.

The Crown could under its prerogative create Prerogative Courts in which the process was inquisitorial.

By 2014 the former Milton Courts and Milton Bowl sites will be redeveloped to create Frew Park, a large inner city parkland.

However, in 2006, the Scottish Government announced its intention to unify the management of the sheriff and district courts in Scotland, but retaining lay justices, as part of its initiative to create a unified judiciary under the Lord President ; the Justice of the Peace Courts were implemented on a Sheriffdom by Sheriffdom basis.

In terms of court reform, Djanogly's two key achievements were ; firstly, the merger of HM Courts Service with the Tribunals Service to create HMCTS on 1 April 2011.

# States may also create laws in relation to offences against percepts of Islam but this is subject to a number of limitations: ( i ) such laws may only apply to Muslims, ( ii ) such laws may not create criminal offences as only Parliament has the power to create criminal laws and ( iii ) the State Syariah Courts have no jurisdiction over Islamic offences unless allowed by federal law ( see the above section ).

Section 101 gives Parliament power to create a " general court of appeal for Canada " and " additional Courts for the better Administration of the Laws of Canada ".

The federal government has the power to establish a court system under section 101 of the Constitution Act, 1867 which allows the government to create " any additional Courts for the better Administration of the Laws of Canada.

The Organic Law of the People's Courts was designed to create a more orderly environment and to assure the people that the chaotic years of the Cultural Revolution, with no courts and no legal guarantees, were over.