Duesberg has also argued that nitrite inhalants were the cause of the epidemic of Kaposi sarcoma ( KS ) in gay men.

In 1989, Duesberg exercised his right, as a member of the National Academy of Sciences, to bypass the peer review process and publish his arguments in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences ( PNAS ) unreviewed.

The Duesberg hypothesis is the claim, associated with University of California, Berkeley professor Peter Duesberg, that various non-infectious factors such as recreational and pharmaceutical drug use are the cause of AIDS, and that HIV ( human immunodeficiency virus ) is merely a harmless passenger virus.

The scientific consensus is that the Duesberg hypothesis is incorrect, and that HIV is the cause of AIDS.

Duesberg argues that there is a statistical correlation between trends in recreational drug use and trends in AIDS cases.

Moreover, in addition to recreational drugs, Duesberg argues that anti-HIV drugs such as zidovudine ( AZT ) can cause AIDS.

Since AIDS is now defined partially by the presence of HIV, Duesberg claims it is impossible by definition to offer evidence that AIDS doesn't require HIV.

According to the Duesberg hypothesis, AIDS is not found in Africa.

What Duesberg calls " the myth of an African AIDS epidemic ," among people " exists for several reasons, including:

Duesberg states that African AIDS cases are " a collection of long-established, indigenous diseases, such as chronic fevers, weight loss, alias “ slim disease ”, diarrhea and tuberculosis " that result from malnutrition and poor sanitation.

According to Duesberg, common diseases are easily misdiagnosed as AIDS in Africa because " the diagnosis of African AIDS is arbitrary " and does not include HIV testing.

One of the reasons for using more HIV tests despite their expense is that, rather than overestimating AIDS as Duesberg suggests, the Bangui definition alone excluded nearly half of African AIDS patients.

Duesberg notes that diseases associated with AIDS differ between African and Western populations, concluding that the causes of immunodeficiency must be different.

Because reported AIDS cases in Africa and other parts of the developing world include a larger proportion of people who do not belong to Duesberg's preferred risk groups of drug addicts and male homosexuals, Duesberg writes on his website that " There are no risk groups in Africa, like drug addicts and homosexuals ," However, many studies have addressed the issue of risk groups in Africa and concluded that the risk of AIDS is not equally distributed.

The consensus in the scientific community is that the Duesberg hypothesis has been refuted by a large and growing mass of evidence showing that HIV causes AIDS, that the amount of virus in the blood correlates with disease progression, that a plausible mechanism for HIV's action has been proposed, and that anti-HIV medication decreases mortality and opportunistic infection in people with AIDS.

* the AIDS epidemic in Thailand cited by Duesberg as confirmation of his hypothesis is in fact evidence of the role of HIV in AIDS.

Duesberg claims as support for his idea that many drug-free HIV + people have not yet developed AIDS ; HIV / AIDS scientists note that many drug-free HIV + people have developed AIDS, and that, in the absence of medical treatment or rare genetic factors postulated to delay disease progression, it is very likely that nearly all HIV + people will eventually develop AIDS.

In 1993, Nature published an editorial arguing that Duesberg had forfeited his right of reply by engaging in disingenuous rhetorical techniques and ignoring any evidence that conflicted with his claims.

Peter Duesberg argues that retroviruses like HIV must be harmless to survive: they do not kill cells and they do not cause cancer, he maintains.

Duesberg does not suggest that HIV is an endogenous retrovirus, a virus integrated into the germ line and genetically heritable:

Mullis has drawn controversy for his association with prominent AIDS denialist Peter Duesberg, claiming that AIDS is an arbitrary diagnosis only used when HIV antibodies are found in a patient's blood.

In 1987 Peter Duesberg questioned the link between HIV and AIDS in the journal Cancer Research.

There is broad scientific consensus that HIV is the cause of AIDS, but some individuals reject this consensus, including biologist Peter Duesberg, biochemist David Rasnick, journalist / activist Celia Farber, conservative writer Tom Bethell, and intelligent design advocate Phillip E. Johnson.

The discredited Duesberg hypothesis posits that HIV is a passenger virus in the etiology of AIDS.

However, following an interaction with prominent AIDS denialist Peter Duesberg in 1994, she began to question whether HIV causes AIDS.

Duesberg claims that the supposedly innocuous nature of all retroviruses is supported by what he considers to be their normal mode of proliferation: infection from mother to child in utero.

The most prominent supporters of this hypothesis are Duesberg himself, biochemist and vitamin proponent David Rasnick, and journalist Celia Farber.

* The need, according to Duesberg, of the CDC, the WHO, and other health organizations to justify their existences, resulting in their " manufacturing contagious plagues out of noninfectious medical conditions.

Consistent with this hypothesis, studies that report the highest rates of PCP in Africa are those that use the most advanced diagnostic methods " Duesberg also claims that Kaposi's Sarcoma is " exclusively diagnosed in male homosexual risk groups using nitrite inhalants and other psychoactive drugs as aphrodisiacs ", but the cancer is fairly common among heterosexuals in some parts of Africa, and is found in heterosexuals in the United States as well.

Duesberg writes, " retroviruses do not kill cells because they depend on viable cells for the replication of their RNA from viral DNA integrated into cellular DNA.

Duesberg also rejects the involvement of retroviruses and other viruses in cancer.

Duesberg rejects a role in cancer for numerous viruses, including leukemia viruses, Epstein-Barr Virus, Human Papilloma Virus, Hepatitis B, Feline Leukemia Virus, and Human T-lymphotropic virus.

Academic Alice Echols, in her 1989 book Daring To Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967 – 1975, argued that radical feminist Valerie Solanas, best known for her attempted murder of Andy Warhol in 1968, displayed an extreme level of misandry compared to other radical feminists of the time in her tract, The SCUM Manifesto.

Perestroika is often argued to be the cause of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe, and the end of the Cold War.

Robert Caro argued in his 1989 book that Johnson had stolen the election in Jim Wells County and other counties in South Texas, as well as rigging 10, 000 ballots in Bexar County alone.

On the one hand, figures such as Karl Radek argued that a Stagist strategy was correct for China, although their writings are only known to us now second hand, having perished in the 1930s ( if original copies exist in the archives, they have not been located since the fall of the USSR in 1989 ).

For several months after the events of December 1989, it was widely argued that Ion Iliescu and the National Salvation Front ( FSN ) had merely taken advantage of the chaos to stage a coup.

J. Philippe Rushton, psychologist and author of the controversial work Race, Evolution and Behavior ( 1995 ), reanalyzed Gould's retabulation in 1989, and argued that Samuel Morton, in his 1839 book Crania Americana, had shown a pattern of decreasing brain size proceeding from East Asians, Europeans, and Africans.

It was argued before the Court on April 26, 1989.

John R. Searle argued in his 1989 article How Performatives Work that performatives are true / false just like constatives.

In 1989, Marvin E. Thomas in Karl Theodor and the Bavarian Succession, 1777 – 1778 argued that in fact Charles Theodore wanted to maintain possession of his new territory, and that this is shown in his diplomatic correspondence.

Smith ( 1989 ) has argued that locus of control only weakly measures self-efficacy ; " only a subset of items refer directly to the subject's capabilities ".

Recent historiography of the salons has been dominated by Jürgen Habermas ' work, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere ( triggered largely by its translation into French, in 1978, and then English, in 1989 ), which argued that the salons were of great historical importance.

In his PhD thesis, completed under the supervision of John Haugeland and entitled " Distributed Representation " ( 1989 ) van Gelder gave the first sustained exploration of the general concept of distributed representation, and argued that it was a third fundamental kind of representation alongside language and imagery.

Furthermore, it is argued that the responsibility of learning should reside increasingly with the learner ( Glasersfeld, 1989 ).

However, it is also argued that Suha met Arafat in 1987 and 1988, and helped organize his visit to Paris in 1989.

Named after the Committees of Correspondence formed during the American Revolution, the group criticized the leadership of CPUSA president Gus Hall and argued that, in light of the dissolution of the Soviet Union since 1989, the party should reject Leninism and adopt a more moderate democratic socialist orientation.

Berkeley Film and Media Professor, Anton Kaes ( 1989 ) argued that auteur film-maker Edgar Reitz's trilogy was autobiographical.

Robert Huckfeldt and Carol Weitzel Kohfeld in Race and the Decline of Class in American Politics ( 1989 ) argued that " race served to splinter the Democratic coalition " because the policy commitments of the Civil Rights era provoked " acial hostility, particularly on the part of lower-status whites.

In the eve of the first free post-communist elections day ( 20 May 1990 ), Brucan argued that the 1989 Revolution was not anti-communist, being only against Ceauşescu, not against the communism of the 1950s and 1960s, saying that Iliescu made a " monumental " mistake in " conceding to the crowd " and banning the Romanian Communist Party.

Even more radical was Rolf Rendtorff ( The Problem of of the Process of Transmission in the Pentateuch, 1989 ), who argued that neither the Jahwist nor the Elohist had ever existed as sources but instead represented collections of independent fragmentary stories, poems, etc.

'" After computer-based analysis in 1989, the Tanners argued that the lost manuscript does not support the hypothesis that Joseph Smith was a misguided individual that believed the mental invention of his own creative imagination, but rather that Joseph Smith was at the very least minimally aware of deception on his part.

Writing in 1989 he also argued that Perestroika and Glasnost were merely Soviet propaganda tools, drawing among other on KGB-defector Anatoliy Golitsyn's New Lies for Old, which in 1984 predicted the collapse of communism as a way of seducing the West.

A Cabinet paper of 10 March 1989 argued that the overall objectives and the broad philosophy of the Bill should be stated in a purpose section and clarified in a section on fundamental principles.

David Aston has convincingly argued in a JEA 75 ( 1989 ) paper that Osorkon II was succeeded by Shoshenq III at Tanis rather than Takelot II Si-Ese as Kitchen assumed because none of Takelot II's monuments have been found in Lower Egypt where other genuine Tanite kings such as Osorkon II, Shoshenq III and even the short-lived Pami ( at 6-7 Years ) are attested on donation stelas, temple walls and / or annal documents.

In a 1989 essay, the American historian Jerry Muller criticized Wehler as a " leading Left-Liberal historian " who used the Historikerstreit to unjustly smear neo-conservatives with the Nazi tag Muller went on to write of the " interesting peculiarity of the political culture of German Left-liberal intellectuals " such as Wehler, in that Wehler referred to repression in the Stalin-era Soviet Union as " the excesses of the Russian Civil War ", and argued that there was no comparison between Soviet and German history.