In the Abbasid period ( after 750 AD ) Arab Muslims began to be interested in Greek scientific and medical texts for the first time, and had some of Galen's texts translated into Arabic, often by Syrian Christian scholars ( see below ).

In 1541, while in Bologna, Vesalius uncovered the fact that all of Galen's research had been based upon animal anatomy rather than the human ; since dissection had been banned in ancient Rome, Galen had dissected Barbary Apes instead, and argued that they would be anatomically similar to humans.

It was in this opening chapter, or book, of De fabrica that Vesalius made several of his strongest claims against Galen's theories and writings which he had put in his anatomy books.

* In Galen's observation of the ape, he had discovered that their sternum consisted of seven parts which he assumed held true for humans.

* He also disproved the common belief that men had one rib fewer than women and noted that fibula and tibia bones of the leg were indeed larger than the humerus bone of the arm, unlike Galen's original findings.

Arabic scholar Ibn al-Nafis had disputed aspects of Galen's views, providing a model that seems to imply a form of pulmonary circulation in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon ( 1242 ).

Downing used his Orangist contacts to induce the province of Overijssel, whose countryside had been ravaged by Galen's troops, to ask the States-General for a peace with England conceding — so the Orangists naively thought — to the main English demand that the young William III would be made Captain-General and Admiral-General of the Republic and ensured of the stadtholderate.

A rockslide killed Galen in the human's place and Fortress Maximus was rendered immobile until Spike Witwicky, the human Galen had saved, was given Galen's helmet, giving him control over Maximus's body.

Galen's sermon probably had a greater impact than any other one statement in consolidating anti -' euthanasia ' sentiment.

Vesalius also exposed the non-existence structures that had been believed to be in the brain since Galen's ( revered ) work, such as the rete mirabile.

Using Galen's helmet, Spike took control of Fortress Maximus and routed the Decepticons, after which he accepted the other Headmasters ' offer to binary bond him to Fortress Maximus, taking Galen's place in the combination, in order to save his brother, Buster, who had been captured by the Decepticons.

In his time, Galen's reputation as both physician and philosopher was legendary, the Emperor Marcus Aurelius describing him as " Primum sane medicorum esse, philosophorum autem solum " ( first among doctors and unique among philosophers Praen 14: 660 ).

When young Galen's technomage parents died in a starliner fire, Elric adopted Galen and began mentoring him as an apprentice.

The British authorities felt attacked by Von Galen's sermon and ordered him to renounce it immediately ; he refused.

Galen's concept of the stomach having four faculties was widely accepted up to modernity in the seventeenth century.

* Galen's major work on medicines, Pharmacologia, is published.

Constantine translated around twenty major works himself, such as Galen's Ars Parva, Hippocratic work including the Aphorisms and the Prognostics and the great encyclopedic work known as the patengi.

Several schools of thought existed within the medical field during Galen's lifetime, the main two being the Empiricists and Rationalists ( also called Dogmatists or Philosophers ), with the Methodists being a smaller group.

* N. Rescher, M. E. Marmura, ( 1965 ), The Refutation by Alexander of Aphrodisias of Galen's Treatise on the Theory of Motion.

In contrast, in the predominantly Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman empire ( Byzantium ), many commentators of the subsequent centuries, such as Oribasius, physician to the emperor Julian who compiled a Synopsis in the 4th century, preserved and disseminated Galen's works, making Galenism more accessible.

* Andreas Vesalius ( 1514 – 1564 ) published De Humani Corporis Fabrica ( On the Fabric of the Human Body ) ( 1543 ), which discredited Galen's views.

In his dissections of the heart, Vesalius became convinced that Galen's claims of a porous Interventricular septum were false. This fact was previously described by Michael Servetus, fellow of Vesalius, but never reached the public, for it was written down in the " Manuscript of Paris ", in 1546, and just published later in his Christianismi Restitutio ( 1553 ), an heretic book for the Inquisition.

The lacteals were termed the fourth kind of vessels ( the other three being the artery, vein and nerve, which was then believed to be a type of vessel ), and disproved Galen's assertion that chyle was carried by the veins.

Galen's theory of the physiology of the circulatory system endured until 1628, when William Harvey published his treatise entitled De motu cordis, in which he established that blood circulates, with the heart acting as a pump.

Because Galen's works were not translated into Latin in the ancient period, and because of the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, the study of Galen, along with the Greek medical tradition as a whole, went into decline in Western Europe during the Early Middle Ages, when very few Latin scholars could read Greek.

Consequently research on Galen's work is fraught with hazard.

Magnus of Nisibis was a pure theorist, as were John of Alexandria and Agnellus of Ravenna with their lectures on Galen's De Sectis.

However, Galen's influence, as in the Arab world, was so great that when dissections discovered anomalies compared with Galen's anatomy, the physicians often tried to fit these into the Galenic system.

* The replacement of Galen's treatment of the venous and arterial systems as two separate systems with William Harvey's concept that blood circulated from the arteries to the veins " impelled in a circle, and is in a state of ceaseless motion "

He followed this in 1539 with an updated version of Galen's anatomical handbook, Institutiones Anatomicae.

Coming into conflict with Galen's accepted view of the liver as the origin of venous blood, Harvey estimated the capacity of the heart, how much blood is expelled through each pump of the heart, and the amount of times the heart beats in a half an hour.

Harvey's discoveries inevitably and historically came into conflict with Galen's teachings and the publication of his treatise De Motu Cordis incited considerable controversy within the medical community.

What he effected in the case of the first, though not trifling in itself, is inconsiderable as compared with the whole mass of Galen's writings ; and of his translations from Aristotle, some of which are known to have been completed, nothing has survived.

This is exemplified by Mondino's description of the heart: he combines Aristotle's notion of a triventricular heart with Galen's claim that a portion of the blood can flow directly from one side of the heart to the other though a permeable interventricular septum.

Vesalius in the 16th century carried out numerous dissections in the process of performing some of the most extensive anatomical investigations up to his time, but was attacked frequently by other physicians for his disagreement with Galen's studies of human anatomy.

Even with his improvements, however, Vesalius clung to some of Galen's errors, such as the idea that there was a different type of blood flowing through veins than arteries.

Edward Woodward played Alwyn, a rogue Techno Mage living on the planet with its inhabitants who was a friend of Galen's former teacher.

Assyrian Hunayn ibn Ishaq translated Galen's work, along with that of Hippocrates, into Arabic which lead to the spread of Greek physiology throughout the Middle East and Europe.

According to the medieval biographical sources, he completed the commentary on Galen's On the Usefulness of the Parts in the year 1068 AD, which provides us with the one firm date in his biography.

Galen's group attempted to remote-control the decapitated Autobot bodies themselves, but when that met with failure, Arcana and Fortress Maximus worked together to create a process called " Binary-bonding "-the engineering of the Nebulan's bodies into transforming cybernetic forms, allowing them to transform into heads and become masters of the Autobots ' bodies.

While Galen's identification of the heart with emotion were proposed as a part of his theory of the circulatory system, the heart has continued to be used as a symbolic source of human emotions even after the rejection of such beliefs.