* 1800 — Alessandro Volta invents the voltaic pile, or " battery ", specifically to disprove Galvani's animal electricity theory.

Galvani's associate Alessandro Volta, in opposition, reasoned that the animal electricity was a physical phenomenon caused by rubbing frog skin and not a metallic electricity.

Building on Galvani's 1780s discovery of how a circuit of two metals and a frog's leg can cause the frog's leg to respond, Volta demonstrated in 1794 that when two metals and brine-soaked cloth or cardboard are arranged in a circuit they produce an electric current.

Burke takes us on an adventure with barometers, weather forecasting, muddy and blacktop roads, rain runoff, sewage, a cholera epidemic, hygiene, plumbing, ceramics, vacuum pumps, compressed air drills, tunnels in the Alps, train air brakes, Tesla hydroelectric power, the electric motor, Galvani's muscle-electricity connection, Volta's battery, and gyroscopes.

This was the two-fluid theory of electricity, which was to be opposed by Benjamin Franklin's one-fluid theory later in the century. Late 1780s diagram of Galvani's experiment on frog legs.

It stemmed from Galvani's induction of twitches in severed frogs ' legs, by his accidental generation of electricity.

Late 1780s diagram of Galvani's experiment on frog legs

Galvani's assistant touched an exposed sciatic nerve of the frog with a metal scalpel, which picked up a charge.

The neuron doctrine was supported by experiments following Luigi Galvani's pioneering work in the electrical excitability of muscles and neurons.

It is suspected that Scarpa attended Galvani's public dissertation and may have taken claim on some of Galvani's discoveries without crediting him.

The beginning of Galvani's experience with electricity has a popular version of the story.

* Galvani's report of his investigations were mentioned specifically by Mary Shelley as part of the summer reading list leading up to an ad hoc ghost story contest on a rainy day in Switzerland — and the resultant novel Frankenstein — and its reanimated construct.

* Galvani's name also survives in the Galvanic cell, Galvani potential, galvanic corrosion, the galvanometer and galvanization.

Guillaume-Benjamin-Amand Duchenne ( de Boulogne ) ( September 17, 1806 in Boulogne-sur-Mer – September 15, 1875 in Paris ) was a French neurologist who revived Galvani's research and greatly advanced the science of electrophysiology.

" In joint scientific efforts extending over twenty years, initially in collaboration with J. C. ( Cliff ) Shaw at the RAND Corporation, and subsequentially with numerous faculty and student colleagues at Carnegie Mellon University, they have made basic contributions to artificial intelligence, the psychology of human cognition, and list processing.

Some academics believe that scientific colleagues who suspect scientific misconduct should consider taking informal action themselves, or reporting their concerns.

In 1989, a number of his colleagues assembled an anthology which they called a festschrift to honor the scientific contribution Asimov had made through his fiction, such as the many scientific terms he had coined.

Skelton's scientific colleagues at the British Museum made a short preliminary examination in 1967 and found that:

Adams made many attempts to respond to the criticism of his formulation from his scientific colleagues, but the work remained incomplete at Adams ' death in 1918.

The museum has been established by his family, colleagues and students in order to value his 60 years of scientific, educational and cultural activities, and to set an example for young generation of Iran, students in particular, of a hard-working contemporary scientist, who despite his difficult childhood led a successful life and contributed greatly towards his country's progress by establishing many scientific, industrial, cultural and research centers in Iran among which one can name Tehran University, the first modern university in the country.

The reaction to the sentence was stronger abroad than in Croatia, as scientific colleagues from numerous countries tried to obtain his release, but without success.

They organized a team to conduct meticulous scientific research based on data collected by Japanese colleagues who had studied the effects of the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and drew upon their knowledge of the medical effects of burn, blast, and radiation injuries.

:" Lee Lorch, the chair of the mathematics department at Fisk University, and three Black colleagues, Evelyn Boyd ( now Granville ), Walter Brown, and H. M. Holloway came to the meeting and were able to attend the scientific sessions.

Adams made many attempts to respond to the criticism of his formulation from his scientific colleagues, but the work remained incomplete at Adams's death in 1918.

* 1960-1985: Van Allen, his colleagues, associates and students at The University of Iowa continued to fly scientific instruments on sounding rockets, Earth satellites ( Explorer 52 / Hawkeye 1 ), and interplanetary spacecraft including the first missions ( Pioneer program, Mariner program, Voyager program, Galileo spacecraft ) to the planets Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

This microstructure was subsequently named bainite by Bain's colleagues at the United States Steel Corporation although it took some time for the name to be taken up by the scientific community with books as late as 1947 failing to mention bainite by name.

Meanwhile, the sociology of scientific knowledge developed at the University of Edinburgh, where David Bloor and his colleagues developed what has been termed the Strong Programme, which was based on what Bloor called the empirical programme of relativism and the principle of symmetry.

Throughout his Chairmanship, Slater taught, wrote books, produced ideas of major scientific importance, and interacted with colleagues throughout the local, national and international scientific communities.

Beam writes that Fomenko and his colleagues were discovered by the Soviet scientific press in the early 1980s, leading to " a brief period of renown "; a contemporary review from the journal Questions of History complained, " Their constructions have nothing in common with Marxist historical science.

For a four-day period, thousands of entomologists and professionals from related disciplines gather from around the world to exchange scientific information and ideas, enhance professional knowledge and skills, network with colleagues and re-acquaint with old friends, and conduct the business of the Society.

These more recent studies along with any early ones using appropriate scientific methods and published through 2010 were recently reviewed by Nicholas Lofthouse, Ph. D. and colleagues and discussed in a separate paper that concluded that neurofeedback was probably efficacious but that the available evidence was hardly conclusive.

A peer review is the process by which scientists assess the work of their colleagues that has been submitted for publication in the scientific literature.

* The 16PF Questionnaire ( 16PF ) was developed by Raymond Cattell and his colleagues in the 1940s and 1950s in a search to try to discover the basic traits of human personality using scientific methodology.

As an author, he has presented the outcome of the work that he and colleagues have undertaken in a series of books, as well as in the requisite scientific papers.

His results have never been reproduced, and are generally regarded either as meaningless or considered to have had little if any scientific merit.

The school has been highly influential in setting the agenda for historiography in France and numerous other countries, especially regarding the use of social scientific methods by historians, emphasizing social rather than political or diplomatic themes, and for being generally hostile to the class analysis of Marxist historiography.

# Class III devices generally require premarket approval ( PMA ) or premarket notification ( 510k ), a scientific review to ensure the device's safety and effectiveness, in addition to the general controls of Class I.

* It accepts the use of the scientific method, and generally rejects introspection as a valid method of investigation-in contrast with such approaches as Freudian psychology.

Since the later 20th century, use of CE and BCE has been popularized in academic and scientific publications, and more generally by publishers emphasizing secularism or sensitivity to non-Christians.

However, cold fusion by this mechanism has not been generally accepted by the scientific community.

Although the existence of dark matter is generally accepted by the mainstream scientific community, several alternative theories have been proposed to try to explain the anomalies for which dark matter is intended to account.

Buckminster Fuller is generally credited with making the idea respectable in Western scientific circles in the 20th century.

Once the Hershey – Chase experiment was published, the scientific community generally acknowledged that DNA was the genetic code material.

While empirical investigations of the natural world have been described since classical antiquity ( for example, by Thales, Aristotle, and others ), and scientific methods have been employed since the Middle Ages ( for example, by Ibn al-Haytham, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and Roger Bacon ), the dawn of modern science is generally traced back to the early modern period, during what is known as the Scientific Revolution that took place in 16th and 17th century Europe.

The two categories, scientific and commercial, generally used common peripherals but had completely different instruction sets, and there were incompatibilities even within each category.

Some critics, such as Jerry Coyne ( professor of evolutionary biology at the University of Chicago ) and Eugenie Scott ( a physical anthropologist and executive director of the National Center for Science Education ) have argued that the concept of irreducible complexity, and more generally, intelligent design is not falsifiable, and therefore, not scientific.

Taking cosmic inflation as a popular case in point, George Ellis provides a balanced criticism of not only the science, but as he suggests, the scientific philosophy, by which multiverse theories are generally substantiated.

Evangelicals, on the other hand, tend to avoid interpretations of the Bible that would directly contradict generally accepted scientific assertions of fact.

Groups opposing certain generally accepted scientific views on evolution, second-hand smoke, AIDS, and other politically contentious scientific matters argue that PC is responsible for the failure of their perspectives to receive a fair public hearing ; thus, in Lamarck's Signature: How Retrogenes are Changing Darwin's Natural Selection Paradigm, Assoc.

Although generally considered essential to academic quality, and used in most important scientific publications, peer review has been criticized as ineffective, slow, and misunderstood ( also see anonymous peer review and open peer review ).

The adjective planktonic is widely used in both the scientific and popular literature, and is a generally accepted term.

Such theories are generally termed scientific racism.

* Biosatellites are satellites designed to carry living organisms, generally for scientific experimentation.

His results have never been reproduced, and are generally regarded either as meaningless or considered to have had little if any scientific merit.

The history of thermodynamics as a scientific discipline generally begins with Otto von Guericke who, in 1650, built and designed the world's first vacuum pump and demonstrated a vacuum using his Magdeburg hemispheres.

So customary units are still widely used on consumer products and in industrial manufacturing ; only in military, medical, and scientific contexts are SI units generally the norm.

Gibbs had few students and his retiring personality and intense focus on his scientific work were such that he was generally unavailable personally.