The Old Library, assembled mainly during the 19th century, has many valuable books from as far back as the 15th century ( the older ones are held in the university library ), and includes an original edition of Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan.

The English cleric Richard Cumberland wrote a lengthy and influential attack on Hobbes's depiction of individual self-interest as the essential feature of human motivation.

* 1674 – two volumes of tracts on the Saltiness of the Sea, Suspicions about the Hidden Realities of the Air, Cold, Celestial Magnets, Animadversions on Hobbes's Problemata de Vacuo

The Jewish philosopher and pantheist Baruch Spinoza echoed Hobbes's doubts about the provenance of the historical books in his A Theologico-Political Treatise ( published in 1670 ), and elaborated on the suggestion that the final redaction of these texts was post-exilic under the auspices of Ezra ( Chapter IX ).

Foucault warns that it has nothing to do with Machiavelli's or Hobbes's discourse on war, for to this popular discourse, the Sovereign is nothing more than " an illusion, an instrument, or, at the best, an enemy.

Part 6 is perhaps an under-emphasised feature of Hobbes's argument: his is explicitly in favour of censorship of the press and restrictions on the rights of free speech should they be considered desirable by the sovereign in order to promote order.

* Catherine Macaulay-Loose Remarks on Mr. Hobbes's Philosophical Rudiments of Government and Society ( on Hobbes's 1651 work )

That would be congruent with Hobbes's view on the subject, but not with most modern definitions that see democracy as a necessary condition of popular sovereignty.

Part 6 is a perhaps under-emphasised feature of Hobbes's argument: his is explicitly in favour of censorship of the press and restrictions on the rights of free speech, should they be considered desirable by the sovereign in order to promote order.

* Lose Remarks on Certain Positions to be found in Mr. Hobbes's ‘ Philosophical Rudiments of Government and Society ’, with a Short Sketch of a Democratical Form of Government, In a Letter to Signor Paoli ( 1767 ).

Tarantino was best known for his critique of Thomas Hobbes, which focused on the relationship between Hobbes's logic and psychology.

For Cumberland, human interdependence precludes Hobbes's natural right of each individual to wage war against all the rest for personal survival.

Grotius posited that individual human beings had natural rights ; Hobbes asserted that men consent to abdicate their rights in favor of the absolute authority of government ( whether monarchial or parliamentary ); Pufendorf disputed Hobbes's equation of a state of nature with war ; Locke believed that natural rights were inalienable, and that the rule of God therefore superseded government authority ; and Rousseau believed that democracy ( self-rule ) was the best way of ensuring the general welfare while maintaining individual freedom under the rule of law.

Hale's jurisprudence struck a middle-ground between Edward Coke's " appeal to reason " and John Selden's " appeal to contract ", while refuting elements of Thomas Hobbes's theory of natural law.

Unlike Hobbes's natural man, Rousseau's is not motivated by fear of death because he cannot conceive of that end, thus fear of death already suggests a movement out of the state of nature.

Rousseau's natural man is more or less like any other animal, with " self-preservation being his chief and almost sole concern " and " the only goods he recognizes in the universe " being " food, a female, and sleep ..." This natural man, unlike Hobbes's, is not in constant state of fear and anxiety.

Locke's idea of tabula rasa is frequently compared with Thomas Hobbes's viewpoint of human nature, in which humans are endowed with inherent mental content – particular with selfishness.

Debates about " soft " and " hard " primitivism intensified with the publication in 1651 of Hobbes's Leviathan ( or Commonwealth ), a justification of absolute monarchy.

Hume's ideas about human nature expressed in the Treatise suggest that he would be happy with neither Hobbes's nor his contemporary Rousseau's thought-experiments.

Nevertheless, he was contemptuous and afraid of the Enlightenment, led by intellectuals such as Rousseau, Voltaire, and Turgot, who disbelieved in divine moral order and original sin, saying that society should be handled like a living organism, that people and society are limitlessly complicated, thus, leading him to conflict with Thomas Hobbes's assertion that politics might be reducible to a deductive system akin to mathematics.

It is, however, with Hobbes's recasting of the concept as the war-disposed, dissolute pole of the opposition between a Multitude and a People in De Cive, that Spinoza ’ s conceptualization seems, according to Negri, contrasted.

Hayek dismisses philosophies that do not adequately recognize the emergent nature of society, and which describe it as the conscious creation of a rational agent ( be it God, the Sovereign, or any kind of personified body politic, such as Hobbes's Leviathan ).

The first significant argument against dualism came from Thomas Hobbes's ( 1588 – 1679 ) materialist critique of the human person.

Early works of biblical criticism, such as Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan and Spinoza's Theologico-Political Treatise, as well as works by lesser-known authors such as Richard Simon and Isaac La Peyrère, paved the way for the development of critical deism.

“ This doctrine is rooted in Aristotle's conception of the soul, and has antecedents in Hobbes's conception of the mind as a ‘ calculating machine ’, but it has become fully articulated ( and popularly endorsed ) only in the last third of the 20th century .” In so far as it mediates stimulus and response, a mental function is analogous to a program that processes input / output in automata theory.

Hobbes's version is " Do not that to another, which thou wouldst not have done to thy selfe.

By way of contrast to Hobbes's multiplicity of laws, Cumberland states in the very first sentence of his Treatise of the Laws of Nature that " all the Laws of Nature are reduc'd to that one, of Benevolence toward all Rationals.

" Hobbes's Moral and Political Philosophy ", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta ( ed .).

It is an answer to Hobbes's famous doctrine that moral distinctions are created by the state, an answer from the standpoint of Platonism.

Among these are many rare 17th-century manuscripts and an original edition of Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan given as a personal gift to the College: Hobbes prepared this work while at Magdalen Hall.

He is known, among other things, for his critique of Thomas Hobbes's egoism and John Locke's theory of personal identity.

He disputed Hobbes's conception of the state of nature and concluded that the state of nature is not one of war but of peace.

However, once Hobbes's initial argument is accepted ( that no-one can know for sure anyone else's divine revelation ) his conclusion ( the religious power is subordinate to the civil ) follows from his logic.

* 1959, " Hobbes's Concept of Obligation ", Philosophical Review, pp. 68-83.

* Hobbes's Critique of Religion and Related Writings.

Philosopher and encyclopedist Mortimer Adler includes all such second-order questions about various fields of study, which are often found under various branches of philosophy beginning with the phrase " philosophy of ....", in his taxonomy.

In the intermediate sense, it includes all relevant cultures and a range of musical forms, styles, genres and traditions, but tends to be confined to the humanities-a combination of historical musicology, ethnomusicology, and the humanities of systematic musicology ( philosophy, theoretical sociology, aesthetics ).

Systematic musicology includes music acoustics, the science and technology of acoustical musical instruments, physiology, psychology, sociology, philosophy and computing.

The New Age movement includes elements of older spiritual and religious traditions ranging from atheism and monotheism through classical pantheism, naturalistic pantheism, pandeism, panentheism, and polytheism combined with science and Gaia philosophy ; particularly archaeoastronomy, astronomy, ecology, environmentalism, the Gaia hypothesis, psychology and physics.

Using first-hand remarks ( which would later be published in Philosophical Investigations, Culture and Value, and other works ), philosophers such as Peter Winch and Norman Malcolm developed what has come to be known as contemplative philosophy, a Wittgensteinian school of thought rooted in the " Swansea tradition " and which includes Wittgensteinians such as Rush Rhees, Peter Winch and D. Z. Phillips, among others.

The Platonic interpretation of this philosophy includes the thesis that mathematics is not created but discovered.

Sima's catalogue — the Book of Celestial Offices ( 天官書 Tianguan shu )— includes some 90 constellations, the stars therein named after temples, ideas in philosophy, locations such as markets and shops, and different people such as farmers and soldiers.

Pre-Socratic philosophy is Greek philosophy before Socrates ( but includes schools contemporary with Socrates which were not influenced by him ).

His book represents the earliest known writing about the magnetic compass, movable type printing, experimentation with the camera obscura only decades after Ibn al-Haytham, and includes many different fields of study in essay and encyclopedic form, including geology, astronomy, botany, zoology, mineralogy, anatomy, pharmacology, geography, optics, economics, military strategy, philosophy, etc.

Organizational capital includes the organization philosophy and systems for leveraging the organization ’ s capability.

Over time the conceptual definition of torture has been expanded and remains a major question for ethics, philosophy, and law, but clearly includes the practices of many subsequent cultures.

However, literary scholarship since the 19th century often includes — in addition to, or even instead of literary theory in the strict sense — considerations of intellectual history, moral philosophy, social prophecy, and other interdisciplinary themes which are of relevance to the way humans interpret meaning.

The " reform of Deceneus " is the result of the elaborations of the 6th century bishop and historian Jordanes who includes the Getae in his history of the Goths: here he describes how Deceneus teaches the Getae people philosophy and physics.

The clinic, which works to the twelve-step programme philosophy of Alcoholics Anonymous is based near Liphook in Hampshire and includes Kate Hoey, Alex Rae and Elton John as patrons, and is supported by the Professional Footballers ' Association.

The Age of Enlightenment refers to the 18th century in European philosophy, and is often thought of as part of a period which includes the Age of Reason.

Learning at an Orthodox yeshiva includes Torah study ; the study of Rabbinic literature, especially the Talmud ( Rabbinic Judaism's central work ); and the study of Responsa for Jewish observance, and alternatively ethical ( Musar ) or mystical ( Hasidic philosophy ) texts.

The range of scholarly interest in creativity includes a multitude of definitions and approaches involving several disciplines ; psychology, cognitive science, education, philosophy ( particularly philosophy of science ), technology, theology, sociology, linguistics, business studies, and economics, taking in the relationship between creativity and general intelligence, mental and neurological processes associated with creativity, the relationships between personality type and creative ability and between creativity and mental health, the potential for fostering creativity through education and training, especially as augmented by technology, and the application of creative resources to improve the effectiveness of learning and teaching processes.

Social work, an interdisciplinary field, includes theories from economics, education, sociology, medicine, philosophy, politics, anthropology and psychology.

Eastern philosophy includes the various philosophies of Asia, including Indian philosophy, Chinese philosophy, Iranian / Persian philosophy, Japanese philosophy, and Korean philosophy.