The economics of the public sector is one example, since where markets fail, some kind of regulatory or government programme is the remedy.

The economics of imposing or removing regulations relating to markets is analysed in regulatory economics.

His jurisprudence influenced much subsequent American legal thinking, including judicial consensus supporting New Deal regulatory law, pragmatism, critical legal studies, and law and economics.

In contrast, a thermodynamically enlightened economics suggests that outputs of degraded matter and energy are an inescapable consequence of any use of matter and energy ( so holds the second law ); some of those degraded outputs will be noxious wastes, and whether and how their production is eliminated depends more on regulatory schemes and technologies at use than on income or production levels.

# REDIRECT regulatory economics

Regulatory capture theory is a core focus of the branch of public choice referred to as the economics of regulation ; economists in this specialty are critical of conceptualizations of governmental regulatory intervention as being motivated to protect public good.

After the dissolution of that ministry on 1 January 1998, those tasks were taken over by a new federal network regulatory agency ( Bundesnetzagentur, formerly RegTP ) under the federal ministry for economics and technology.

In economics and finance, arbitrage () is the practice of taking advantage of a price difference between two or more markets: striking a combination of matching deals that capitalize upon the imbalance, the profit being the difference between the market prices.

In economics, a suicide pill is a form of risk arbitrage used by corporations to thwart hostile takeover attempts.

In economics and finance, arbitrage is the practice of taking advantage of a price difference between two or more markets: striking a combination of matching deals that capitalize upon the imbalance, the profit being the difference between the market prices.

The study of finance is subsumed under economics as financial economics, but the scope, speed, power relations and practices of the financial system can uplift or cripple whole economies and the well-being of households, businesses and governing bodies within them — sometimes in a single day.

Advocates of Keynesian economics argue that private sector decisions sometimes lead to inefficient macroeconomic outcomes which require active policy responses by the public sector, particularly monetary policy actions by the central bank and fiscal policy actions by the government to stabilize output over the business cycle.

There is no Nobel Prize in mathematics, though sometimes mathematicians have won the Nobel Prize in a different field, such as economics.

Neoclassical economics is sometimes criticized for having a normative bias.

In that matter, it is similar to the perfect competition model sometimes used in economics.

Ecological economics is sometimes described as taking a more pluralistic approach to environmental problems and focuses more explicitly on long-term environmental sustainability and issues of scale.

The phenomenon is sometimes considered a problem central to social and human sciences, such as economics, psychology, anthropology, and sociology.

For instance, the definition and ontology of economics ( also sometimes called the political economy ) is hotly debated especially in Marxist economics where it is a primary concern, but also in other subfields.

In economics, a damaged good ( sometimes termed " crippleware " or " feature limited " or product with " anti-features ") is a good that has been deliberately limited in performance, quality or utility, typically for marketing reasons as part of a strategy of product differentiation.

Creative destruction, sometimes known as Schumpeter's gale, is a term in economics which has since the 1950s become most readily identified with the Austrian-American economist Joseph Schumpeter, who adapted it from the work of Karl Marx and popularized it as a theory of economic innovation and the business cycle.

Land was sometimes defined in classical and neoclassical economics as the " original and indestructible powers of the soil.

They are sometimes labeled as interventionist as opposed to laissez-faire economics.

Welfare economics theory holds that sometimes private activities can impose social costs upon others.

Green economics often focuses on the impact of eliminating such subsidies, and implementing what is sometimes called full cost accounting although the notion of a " cost " is so political as to render this phrase almost meaningless.

This division is sometimes used in economics and geography.

Tensions between factions sometimes described as " the free religionists " and " the metropolitan liberals " ( occasionally in the form of an open left-right conflict, with the " free religious " members emphasizing the social aspect over liberal economics ) was an important part of party life up until the seventies.

In economics, the private sector is that part of the economy, sometimes referred to as the citizen sector, which is run by private individuals or groups, usually as a means of enterprise for profit, and is not controlled by the state.

The most commonly distinguished functions of money are as a medium of exchange, a unit of account, a store of value, and, sometimes, a standard of deferred payment, summarized in a mnemonic rhyme of older economics texts:

In economics, a production – possibility frontier ( PPF ), sometimes called a production – possibility curve, production-possibility boundary or product transformation curve, is a graph that compares the production rates of two commodities that use the same fixed total of the factors of production.

" As it happened, the regimes most deeply committed to laissez-faire economics were also sometimes, and notably in the case of Reagan's USA and Thatcher's Britain, profoundly and viscerally nationalist and distrustful of the outside world.

Demand management and Keynesian economics ( helicopter money ) are sometimes cited as mild forms of economic planning, designed to overcome cyclical instability inherent in market economies, or to make market economies function properly in a desired fashion.

Cross-cultural studies, sometimes called holocultural studies or comparative studies, is a specialization in anthropology and sister sciences ( sociology, psychology, economics, political science ) that uses field data from many societies to examine the scope of human behavior and test hypotheses about human behavior and culture.

Keynesian economics advocates a mixed economy — predominantly private sector, but with a significant role of government and public sector – and served as the economic model during the later part of the Great Depression, World War II, and the post-war economic expansion ( 1945 – 1973 ), though it lost some influence following the tax surcharge in 1968 and the stagflation of the 1970s.

Public economics examines the design of government tax and expenditure policies and economic effects of these policies ( e. g., social insurance programs ).

Political opponents chided his policies as " Trickle-down economics ", due to the significant cuts in the upper tax brackets.

Whilst only a few economics graduates may be expected to become professional economists, many find it a base for entry into a career in finance – including accounting, insurance, tax and banking, or management.

Keynesian economics suggests that increasing government spending and decreasing tax rates are the best ways to stimulate aggregate demand, and decreasing spending & increasing taxes after the economic boom begins.

Supply-side economics is a school of macroeconomic thought that argues that economic growth can be most effectively created by lowering barriers for people to produce ( supply ) goods and services, such as lowering income tax and capital gains tax rates, and by allowing greater flexibility by reducing regulation.

The Laffer curve embodies a tenet of supply side economics: that government tax revenues are the same at 100 % tax rates as at 0 % tax rates.

However what most separates supply-side economics as a modern phenomenon is its argument in favor of a low tax rate for primarily collective and notably working-class reasons, rather than traditional ideological ones.

In 1978, Jude Wanniski published The Way the World Works, in which he laid out the central thesis of supply-side economics and detailed the failure of high tax-rate progressive income tax systems and U. S. monetary policy under Nixon in the 1970s.

Some hold this was borne out during the 1980s when, advocates of supply-side economics claim, tax cuts ultimately led to an overall increase in governmental revenue due to stronger economic growth.

Although the term " supply-side economics " may have been coined later, an example of lower tax cuts effecting higher government revenues occurred during the 1920s.

Supply side proponents Trabandt and Uhlig argue that " static scoring overestimates the revenue loss for labor and capital tax cuts ", In a paper published in the Journal of Public Economics, Mankiw and Matthew Weinzierl noted that the current economics research would place an appropriate value for labor supply elasticity at around 0. 5,

* Demand side economics, the school of economics at believes government spending and tax cuts open economy by raising demand

On the other hand measures to mitigate global warming, such as a carbon tax or carbon emissions trading, may favor the economics of nuclear power.

During the 1980s NR called for tax cuts, supply-side economics, the Strategic Defense Initiative, and support for President Reagan's foreign policy against the Soviet Union.

Hayek whose ideas about spontaneous order and inability of government central planners to create thriving economies are seen in the Center ’ s criticism of targeted tax credits and corporate subsidies used by government economic development bureaucracies ; and James M. Buchanan, whose work in public choice economics has informed many of the organization ’ s critiques of state government programs.

Supply side economics, especially the idea of reducing higher marginal income tax rates, received heavy criticism from senior editor Jonathan Chait.

Constitutional law, family law, law and economics, and tax law, among others, are also exceptionally strong.

She writes that former MUM professor of economics and business law, Anthony DeNaro, " alleged " in 1986 that there was " a very serious and deliberate pattern of fraud ... designed to misrepresent the TM movement as a science ( not a cult ), and fraudulently claim and obtain tax exempt status with the IRS ".