Later, and in medieval Europe, jetons were manufactured.

This system of ' counter casting ' continued into the late Roman empire and in medieval Europe, and persisted in limited use into the nineteenth century.

While the Scandinavian branch emphasizes pantheist spirituality rooted in medieval and contemporary Scandinavian folklore, the American branch postulates a " native religion of the peoples of Northern Europe " reaching back into the paleolithic.

Conversely the use of true brass seems to have declined in Western Europe during this period in favour of gunmetals and other mixed alloys but by the end of the first Millennium AD brass artefacts are found in Scandinavian graves in Scotland, brass was being used in the manufacture of coins in Northumbria and there is archaeological and historical evidence for the production of brass in Germany and The Low Countries areas rich in calamine ore which would remain important centres of brass making throughout the medieval period, especially Dinant – brass objects are still collectively known as dinanterie in French.

Due to the rich mining history dating from medieval times ( the Black Forest was one of the most important mining regions of Europe circa 1100 ) there are many mines re-opened to the public.

When they are lit, it is a way for one to call for military aid from the other, as per its historical use in medieval Europe.

The castle ruin Hammershus, on the northwestern tip of the island, is the largest medieval fortress in northern Europe, testament to the importance of its location.

Historical accounts from medieval Europe detail the use of infected animal carcasses, by Mongols, Turks and other groups, to infect enemy water supplies.

Ballads were particularly characteristic of the popular poetry and song of the British Isles from the later medieval period until the 19th century and used extensively across Europe and later the Americas, Australia and North Africa.

The traditional, classical or popular ( meaning of the people ) ballad has been seen as originating with the wandering minstrels of late medieval Europe.

During the Viking Age, Birka ( Birca in medieval sources ), on the island of Björkö ( literally: " Birch Island ") in Sweden, was an important trading center which handled goods from Scandinavia as well as Central and Eastern Europe and the Orient.

The concept of zero ( which was also called " cipher "), which we all now think of as natural, was alien to medieval Europe, so confusing and ambiguous to common Europeans that in arguments people would say " talk clearly and not so far fetched as a cipher ".

The latter refers to the tendency of oral societies, such as that of Europe in the medieval period, to view knowledge as the product, expression, and property of the collective.

In Europe, this system worked through the medieval period because there was virtually no new gold, silver or copper introduced through mining or conquest.

Outside Europe, the escapement mechanism had been known and used in medieval China, as the Song Dynasty horologist and engineer Su Song ( 1020 – 1101 ) incorporated it into his astronomical clock-tower of Kaifeng in 1088.

Columbanus ( 540 – 23 November 615 ;, meaning " the white dove ") was an Irish missionary notable for founding a number of monasteries on the European continent from around 590 in the Frankish and Lombard kingdoms, most notably Luxeuil ( in present-day France ) and Bobbio ( Italy ), and stands as an exemplar of Irish missionary activity in early medieval Europe.

However, a non-eternal cosmos, with both a beginning and an end, would later come to reflect the prevalent theological beliefs in medieval Europe.

A waist-length coat in medieval Europe was called a byrnie, although the exact construction of a byrnie is unclear.

In a historical or geopolitical sense the term usually refers collectively to Christian majority countries or countries in which Christianity dominates or was a territorial phenomenon .“ Christendom is originally a medieval concept steadily to have evolved since the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the gradual rise of the Papacy more in religio-temporal implication practically during and after the reign of Charlemagne ; and the concept let itself to be lulled in the minds of the staunch believers to the archetype of a holy religious space inhabited by Christians, blessed by God, the Heavenly Father, ruled by Christ through the Church and protected by the Spirit-body of Christ ; no wonder, this concept, as included the whole of Europe and then the expanding Christian territories on earth, strengthened the roots of Romance of the greatness of Christianity in the world .”

The Domesday Book was undertaken in 1086 by William I of England so that he could properly tax the land he had recently conquered in medieval Europe.

In medieval Europe, churches became incorporated, as did local governments, such as the Pope and the City of London Corporation.

Most regions in medieval Europe were ruled by clergy or feudal lords.

Norman F. Cantor's summary of the effects of late medieval deforestation applies equally well to Early Modern Europe:

The doctorate ( Latin: doceō, I teach ) appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach ( Latin: licentia docendi ) at a medieval university.

In Venice, the mid-14th century manuscript Libro per cuoco offers ravioli of green herbs blanched and minced, mixed with beaten egg and fresh cheese, simmered in broth, a recipe that would be familiar today save for its medieval powdering of " sweet and strong spices ".

It is common belief that the medieval nuns used vast quantities of egg whites to stiffen their habits, and developed endless dessert recipes to use all the surplus yolks.

" One medieval French source says that the stone " is pierced through the middle, and is round, about as large and heavy as a medium sized egg, glassy in appearance, and is to be found in the fields.

Murphy uses traditional techniques from medieval altar painting, including egg tempera paint and gilding with gold leaf.

Aristotle's views on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their influence extended well into the Renaissance, although they were ultimately replaced by Newtonian physics.

From biblical to medieval Christian traditions, tensions between self-affirmation and other-regard were sometimes discussed under the heading of " disinterested love ," as in the Pauline phrase " love seeks not its own interests.

These authors, the former a medieval historian and the latter an early modernist, quickly became associated with the distinctive Annales approach, which combined geography, history, and the sociological approaches of the Année Sociologique ( many members of which were their colleagues at Strasbourg ) to produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics, diplomacy and war of many 19th and early 20th-century historians as spearheaded by historians whom Febvre called Les Sorbonnistes.

The city suffered extreme overcrowding and deplorable sanitary conditions up to 1875 when the medieval fortifications were finally abandoned as a limit to building operations and new, less miserable quarters were built in the eastern part of the city, where drainage of waste liquids was easiest.

During his tenure as abbot, he supported the abbey with gifts ; the medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury said that they were splendid and many.

The medieval Islamic scientists were not far behind, as they understood the actual mechanism of bird flight.

Some writers trace the process to the medieval mode of trial by combat, in which some litigants, notably women, were allowed a champion to represent them.

The two solstices, the two equinoxes and four cross-quarter days, days half-way between a solstice and the equinox were associated with the medieval Celtic calendar.

Beltane and Samhain were the leading terminal dates of the civil year in medieval Ireland, though the latter festival was the more important.

Conceived while Atkinson and Curtis were working on Not the Nine O ' Clock News, the series dealt comically with a number of medieval issues in Britain – witchcraft, Royal succession, European relations, the Crusades and the conflict between the Church and the Crown.

Until the mid-19th century, the Museum's collections were relatively circumscribed but, in 1851, with the appointment to the staff of Augustus Wollaston Franks to curate the collections, the Museum began for the first time to collect British and European medieval antiquities, prehistory, branching out into Asia and diversifying its holdings of ethnography.

In medieval England, boroughs were also entitled to elect members of parliament.

During the medieval period many towns were granted self-governance by the Crown, at which point they became referred to as boroughs.

The moor gave its name ( Foweymore ) to one of the medieval districts called stannaries which administered tin mining: the boundaries of these were never defined precisely.

Cranmer's work of simplification and revision was also applied to the Daily Offices, which were to become Morning, and Evening Prayer ; and which he hoped would also serve as a daily form of prayer to be used by the Laity, thus replacing both the late medieval lay observation of the Latin Hours of the Virgin, and its English equivalent, the Primer.

The whole act of parish worship might take well over two hours ; and accordingly, churches were equipped with pews in which households could sit together ( whereas in the medieval church, men and women had worshipped separately ).

The earliest pioneers of chemistry and the scientific method, were medieval Arab and Persian scholars.

Evidence from the archaeological and historical record of Ancient Rome and medieval Mesopotamia indicates that coins were collected and catalogued by scholars and state treasuries.

The medieval European Knights Templar ran an early prototype of a central banking system, as their promises to pay were widely respected, and many regard their activities as having laid the basis for the modern banking system.

The Annals of Ulster which cover medieval Ireland between AD 431 to AD 1540 were written at Belle Isle on Lough Erne near Lisbellaw.

Decrees concerning sacred music and religious art, though inexplicit, were subsequently amplified by theologians and writers to condemn many types of Renaissance and medieval styles and iconographies, impacting heavily on the development of these art forms.