The Norse discovery was documented in the 13th century Icelandic Sagas and was corroborated by recent L ' Anse aux Meadows archeological evidence.

Earlier than 900 CE progressing past the 13th century, the population complexes were a major center of culture for the Ancient Pueblo Peoples.

In marked contrast to earlier constructions and villages on top of the mesas, the cliff dwellings at Mesa Verde reflected a region-wide trend towards the aggregation of growing regional populations into close, highly defensible quarters during the 13th century.

Near Kayenta, Arizona, Jonathan Haas of the Field Museum in Chicago has been studying a group of Ancient Pueblo villages that relocated from the canyons to the high mesa tops during the late 13th century.

He asserts that isolated communities relied on raiding for food and supplies, and that internal conflict and warfare became common in the 13th century.

When the great reform of the 11th century had put an end to the direct jurisdiction of the lay abbots, the honorary title of abbot continued to be held by certain of the great feudal families, as late as the 13th century and later, the actual head of the community retaining that of dean.

These ideas were found in a number of Kabbalistic works from the 13th century, and also among many mystics in the late 16th century.

The primary sources regarding Asgard come from the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Icelandic Snorri Sturluson, and the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from a basis of much older Skaldic poetry.

Snorri's interpretation of the 13th century foreshadows 20th century views of Indo-European migration from the east.

* Wikisource: Prose Edda / Gylfaginning ( The Fooling Of Gylfe ) by Sturluson, Snorri, 13th century Edda, in English.

The pair are attested in both the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson.

His family, like many Wallaces, claimed a connection to William Wallace, a Scottish patriot and leader during the Wars of Scottish Independence in the 13th century.

Active contact between the Wajin ( the ethnically Japanese ) and the Ainu of Ezochi ( now known as Hokkaido ) began in the 13th century.

A rare High Medieval image of Alfred, 13th century

Dante Alighieri, in the Divine Comedy, recounts that he saw Alfonso's spirit seated outside the gates of Purgatory with the other monarchs whom Dante blamed for the chaotic political state of Europe during the 13th century.

Successful recreations have been performed by Anthemius of Tralles ( 6th century AD ), Proclus ( 6th century ) ( who by this means purportedly destroyed the fleet of Vitellus besieging Constantinople ), Ibn Sahl in his On Burning Mirrors and Lenses ( 10th century ), Alhazen in his Book of Optics ( 1021 ), Roger Bacon ( 13th century ), Giambattista della Porta and his friends ( 16th century ), Athanasius Kircher and Gaspar Schott ( 17th century ), the Comte du Buffon in 1740 in Paris, Ioannis Sakas in the 1970s in Greece, and others.

In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar ( d. 1248 ) also wrote on botany.

A similar Islamic theological novel, Theologus Autodidactus, was written by the Arab theologian and physician Ibn al-Nafis in the 13th century.

* Ibn Taymiyyah, a Syrian Islamic jurist during the 13th and 14th centuries who is often quoted by contemporary Islamists.

As a means of understanding the world through speculation and storytelling, science fiction has antecedents back to mythology, though precursors to science fiction as literature can be seen in Lucian's True History in the 2nd century, some of the Arabian Nights tales, The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter in the 10th century and Ibn al-Nafis ' Theologus Autodidactus in the 13th century.

Many attempted to find a proof by contradiction, including Persian mathematicians Ibn al-Haytham ( Alhazen, 11th century ), Omar Khayyám ( 12th century ) and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī ( 13th century ), and the Italian mathematician Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri ( 18th century ).

Ibn al-Nafis's 13th century Theologus Autodidactus, an Arabic novel, used empirical science to explain Islamic eschatology.

Elements of Ibn Fadlan's account are used in the novel Eaters of the Dead by Michael Crichton ( adapted to film in The 13th Warrior with Antonio Banderas as Ibn Fadlan ), in which the Arab ambassador is taken even further north and is involved in adventures inspired by the Old English epic Beowulf.

Later writers ( such as the 13th century Old French Continuation of William of Tyre and the Latin Continuation of William of Tyre ) conflated these two incidents, claiming erroneously that Saladin's sister, aunt, or even mother, had been taken prisoner, but this is contradicted by Arabic sources, such as Abu Shama and Ibn al-Athir.

The first reliable reference to cauliflower is found in the writings of the Arab Muslim scientists Ibn al -' Awwam and Ibn al-Baitar, in the 12th and 13th centuries.

Later, the philosopher ' Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi ( 13th century ) tried to defend the Aristotelian conception of place in a treatise titled: Fi al-Radd ‘ ala Ibn al-Haytham fi al-makan ( A refutation of Ibn al-Haytham's place ), although his effort was admirable from a philosophical standpoint, it was unconvincing from the scientific and mathematical viewpoints.

Averroism is the term applied to either of two philosophical trends among scholastics in the late 13th century: ( a ) the Berber doctor and philosopher Averroës or Ibn Rushd's interpretations of Aristotle and his reconciliation of Aristotelianism with Islamic faith ; and ( b ) the application of these ideas in the Latin Christian and Jewish intellectual traditions, such as Siger of Brabant, Boetius of Dacia, and Maimonides.

For example, al-Dinawari described more than 637 plant drugs in the 9th century, and Ibn al-Baitar described more than 1, 400 different plants, foods and drugs, over 300 of which were his own original discoveries, in the 13th century.

The experimental scientific method was introduced into the field of materia medica in the 13th century by the Andalusian-Arab botanist Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, the teacher of Ibn al-Baitar.

* His edition of 13th century Marrakech historian Ibn Idhari's History of Africa and Spain ( 1848 – 1852, 3 vols.

Then in the 13th century Ibn Arabi was the first vibrant Muslim Scholar who not only started this discussion publicly but also wrote hundreds of books about Sufism, tasawwuf and faqr.

In the West, some researchers would date the origins of sinology as far back as Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta in the 13th and 14th century, but the systematic study of China began in the late 16th century, when Jesuit missionaries based at St. Paul's College, Macao, notably Matteo Ricci, introduced Christianity to China.

For example, al-Dinawari described more than 637 plant drugs in the 9th century, and Ibn al-Baitar described more than 1, 400 different plants, foods and drugs, over 300 of which were his own original discoveries, in the 13th century.

The experimental scientific method was introduced into the field of materia medica in the 13th century by the Andalusian-Arab botanist Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, the teacher of Ibn al-Baitar.

Al-Dinawari described more than 637 plant drugs in the 9th century, in the 12th century Ibn Al -' Awwam described 585 fungi ( 55 associated with fruit trees ), and Ibn Al-Baitar described more than 1, 400 different plants, foods and drugs, over 300 of which were his own original discoveries, in the 13th century.

It is possible that Arabic physicians may have performed dissections, including Ibn Zuhr ( Avenzoar ) ( 1091 – 1161 ) in Al-Andalus, Saladin's physician Ibn Jumay during the 12th century, Abd el-Latif in Egypt circa 1200, and Ibn al-Nafis in Syria and Egypt during the 13th century ..

He is known for his commentary on the Mujiz, which was an epitome made in the 13th century by Ibn al-Nafis of The Canon of Medicine of Avicenna.

By some means, Ibn al-Nafis, a 13th century Syrian physician, found the previous statement on blood flow from the right ventricle to the left to be false.

The classical 12th century Islamic philosopher, Abubacer ( Ibn Tufail ), wrote a fictional Arabic narrative Philosophus Autodidactus as a response to al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers, and then the 13th century Islamic theologian-philosopher Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a fictional narrative Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Abubacer's Philosophus Autodidactus.

Thomas Aquinas wrote in the 13th century: " the rule and measure of human acts is the reason, which is the first principle of human acts " ( Aquinas, ST I-II, Q. 90, A. I ).

Summa Theologica, written by Thomas Aquinas in the second half of the 13th century, is a series of common questions about Christianity to which he wrote a series of replies.

The minnesinger Neidhart von Reuental, who lived in the first half of the 13th century wrote several songs for dancing, some of which use the term " reigen ".

Indeed, in the 12th and 13th centuries, Catalan troubadours such as Guerau de Cabrera, Guilhem de Bergadan, Guilhem de Cabestany, Huguet de Mataplana, Raimon Vidal de Besalú, Cerverí de Girona, Formit de Perpinhan, and Jofre de Foixà wrote in Occitan.

In the 13th century medieval Europe the English bishop Robert Grosseteste wrote on a wide range of scientific topics discussing light from four different perspectives: an epistemology of light, a metaphysics or cosmogony of light, an etiology or physics of light, and a theology of light, basing it on the works Aristotle and Platonism.

Rashīd al-Dīn Fadhl-allāh Hamadānī ( 1247 – 1318 ), was a Persian physician of Jewish origin, polymathic writer and historian, who wrote an enormous Islamic history, the Jami al-Tawarikh, in the Persian language, often considered a landmark in intercultural historiography and a key document on the Ilkhanids ( 13th and 14th century ).

In the late 13th century Guiraut Riquier bemoaned the inexactness of his contemporaries and wrote a letter to Alfonso X of Castile, a noted patron of literature and learning of all kinds, for clarification on the proper reference of the terms trobador and joglar.

The study is indebted also to R. Meïr b. Todros ha-Levi ( RaMaH ), who, as early as the 13th century, wrote his " Sefer Massoret Seyag la-Torah " ( correct ed.

Peter of Maricourt, in the last half of the 13th century, also wrote a treatise on the construction and use of a universal astrolabe ( Nova compositio astrolabii particularis ).

Abdul Latif al-Baghdadi, a teacher at Cairo's Al-Azhar University in the 13th century, wrote detailed descriptions on ancient Egyptian monuments.

In 1960 Narendra Nath Law wrote in Indian Antiquity Quaterly that: " W < hitney > would be correct if the 7th season or the 13th month ( presumably for intercalation ) had not been mentionend.

Pertinent to the Copernican Revolution debate of " saving the phenomena " versus offering explanations, one can understand why Thomas Aquinas, in the 13th century, wrote: Reason may be employed in two ways to establish a point: firstly, for the purpose of furnishing sufficient proof of some principle [...].

In the 13th century, * Meir ben Simon of Narbonne wrote an epistle ( included in Milhhemet Mitzvah ) against early Kabbalists, singled out Sefer Bahir, rejecting the attribution of its authorship to the tanna R. Nehhunya ben ha-Kanah and describing some of its content as follow -

Around the turn of the 13th century, Layamon wrote his Brut, based on Wace's 12th century Anglo-Norman epic of the same name ; Layamon's language is recognisably Middle English, though his prosody shows a strong Anglo-Saxon influence remaining.

Michael Bonner, for example, wrote that an " economy of poverty " prevailed in Islam until the 13th and 14th century.

Around the same time, 13th century chronicler Matthew Paris wrote of the monks of St Albans Abbey " according to their custom, lived upon pasties of flesh-meat ".

According to Snorre, the Icelandic author of the Nordic Sagas, who wrote in the 13th century, Odin was supposed to have migrated from the region of the Caucasus or the area just east of the Black Sea near the turn of the 1st century CE.

Thus, early knowledge of lenses and the availability of lenses for spectacles from the 13th century onwards through the 16th century means that it was possible for many individuals to discover the principles of a telescope using a combination of concave or concave and convex lenses ; in the 13th century, Robert Grosseteste wrote several scientific treatises between 1230 and 1235, including De Iride ( Concerning the Rainbow ), in which he said:

The Goliards were a group of clergy who wrote bibulous, satirical Latin poetry in the 12th and 13th centuries.

* In the 13th century the Jewish author Berechiah ha-Nakdan wrote Mishlei Shualim, a collection of 103 ' Fox Fables ' in Hebrew rhymed prose.

Huou, Kublai Khan's court chef, wrote a collection of recipes called " The Important Things to Know About Eating and Drinking " in the 13th century ; it includes mainly soups as well as household advice.

In the 13th century Rythmomachia came to England, where famous mathematician Thomas Bradwardine wrote a text about it.