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In the EPR paper ( 1935 ) the authors realised that quantum mechanics was inconsistent with their assumptions, but Einstein nevertheless thought that quantum mechanics might simply be augmented by hidden variables ( i. e. variables which were, at that point, still obscure to him ), without any other change, to achieve an acceptable theory.
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EPR and paper
The EPR paper, written in 1935, has shown that this explanation is inadequate.
However, since Einstein's death, experiments analogous to the one described in the EPR paper have been carried out, starting in 1976 by French scientists Lamehi-Rachti and Mittig at the Saclay Nuclear Research Centre.
Though the EPR paper has often been taken as an exact expression of Einstein's views, it was primarily authored by Podolsky, based on discussions at the Institute for Advanced Study with Einstein and Rosen.
The EPR paper says: " We are thus forced to conclude that the quantum-mechanical description of physical reality given by wave functions is not complete.
The EPR paper ends by saying: While we have thus shown that the wave function does not provide a complete description of the physical reality, we left open the question of whether or not such a description exists.
The EPR paper used momentum for the observable.
Prior to the publication of the EPR paper, a measurement was often visualized as a physical disturbance inflicted directly upon the measured system.
* The original EPR paper.
Research into quantum entanglement was initiated by a 1935 paper by Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen describing the EPR paradox and several papers by Erwin Schrödinger shortly thereafter.
Following the EPR paper, Erwin Schrödinger wrote a letter ( in German ) to Einstein in which he used the word Verschränkung ( translated by himself as entanglement ) " to describe the correlations between two particles that interact and then separate, as in the EPR experiment ".
The EPR paper generated significant interest among physicists and inspired much discussion about the foundations of quantum mechanics ( perhaps most famously Bohm's interpretation of quantum mechanics ), but relatively little other published work.
* The EPR paper
In 1935, with two coworkers, he published a famous paper on a newly-created subject called later the EPR effect ( EPR paradox ).
After some decades, it was asserted that feasible experiments could prove the error of the EPR paper.
The current usage of realism and completeness originated in the 1935 paper in which Einstein and others proposed the EPR paradox.
In a well known 1935 paper, he and co-authors Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen ( collectively EPR ) demonstrated by a paradox that QM was incomplete.
Following the argument in the Einstein – Podolsky – Rosen ( EPR ) paradox paper ( but using the example of spin, as in David Bohm's version of the EPR argument ), Bell considered an experiment in which there are " a pair of spin one-half particles formed somehow in the singlet spin state and moving freely in opposite directions.
* Nathan Rosen, co-author with Albert Einstein and Boris Podolsky of physics paper about the EPR paradox in quantum mechanics
After the EPR paper, several scientists such as de Broglie took up interest in local hidden variables theories.
* Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen publish a paper arguing that quantum mechanics is not a complete physical theory ( the EPR paradox ).
Hence, followed Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen in 1935 in their famous " EPR paper ", there is something missing in the description of the qubit pair given above — namely this " agreement ", called more formally a hidden variable.
EPR and 1935
Schrödinger intended his thought experiment as a discussion of the EPR article — named after its authors Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen — in 1935.
* 1935 Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen put forth the EPR paradox
* 1935 Niels Bohr presents his analysis of the EPR paradox
This spin up / down formulation was proposed by David Bohm, who conceived of spin as an observable in a version of thought experiments formulated in the 1935 EPR paradox.
EPR and authors
The EPR authors preferred the second explanation according to which that information was encoded in some ' hidden parameters '.
EPR and quantum
In many-worlds, the subjective appearance of wavefunction collapse is explained by the mechanism of quantum decoherence, which resolves all of the correlation paradoxes of quantum theory, such as the EPR paradox and Schrödinger's cat, since every possible outcome of every event defines or exists in its own " history " or " world ".
The EPR paradox is an early and influential critique leveled against quantum mechanics.
Albert Einstein and his colleagues Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen ( known collectively as EPR ) designed a thought experiment intended to reveal what they believed to be inadequacies of quantum mechanics.
The original EPR paradox challenges the prediction of quantum mechanics that it is impossible to know both the position and the momentum of a quantum particle.
However, quantum field theories that are " local " in this sense appear to violate the principle of locality as defined by EPR, but they nevertheless do not violate locality in a more general sense.
Therefore, as outlined in the example above, neither the EPR experiment nor any quantum experiment demonstrates that faster-than-light signaling is possible.
The one suggested by EPR is that quantum mechanics, despite its success in a wide variety of experimental scenarios, is actually an incomplete theory.
In 1964, John Bell showed that the predictions of quantum mechanics in the EPR thought experiment are significantly different from the predictions of a particular class of hidden variable theories ( the local hidden variable theories ).
Most physicists today believe that quantum mechanics is correct, and that the EPR paradox is a " paradox " only because classical intuitions do not correspond to physical reality.
How EPR is interpreted regarding locality depends on the interpretation of quantum mechanics one uses.
The EPR paradox has deepened our understanding of quantum mechanics by exposing the fundamentally non-classical characteristics of the measurement process.
Such explanations, which are still encountered in popular expositions of quantum mechanics, are debunked by the EPR paradox, which shows that a " measurement " can be performed on a particle without disturbing it directly, by performing a measurement on a distant entangled particle.
Nevertheless, consider the EPR thought experiment, and suppose quantum states could be cloned.
John Bell showed that this " EPR " paradox led to experimentally testable differences between quantum mechanics and local realistic theories.
The prerequisites for quantum teleportation are a qubit that is to be teleported, a conventional communication channel capable of transmitting two classical bits ( i. e., one of four states ), and means of generating an entangled EPR pair of qubits, performing a Bell measurement on the EPR pair, and manipulating the quantum state of one of the pair.
At location A, a Bell measurement of the EPR pair qubit and the qubit to be teleported ( for example, quantum state of a photon ) is performed, yielding two classical bits of information.
At location B, the EPR pair qubit is modified ( if necessary ), using the two bits to select the correct one of four possible quantum states.
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