# Deontological ethics, notions based on ' rules ' i. e. that there is an obligation to perform the ' right ' action, regardless of actual consequences ( epitomized by Kant's notion of the Categorical Imperative )

" The Tractatus's notion of substance is the modal analogue of Kant's temporal notion.

Nevertheless, although her notion of judging remains unknown, Arendt did leave manuscripts (" Thinking and Moral Considerations ," " Some Questions on Moral Philosophy ,") and lectures ( Lectures on Kant's Political Philosophy ) concerning her thoughts on this mental faculty.

Kant's Critique of Judgment held to this notion.

It is this notion that was taken to heart by Kant's philosophical successors.

After Schulze had seriously criticized the notion of a thing-in-itself, Johann Gottlieb Fichte ( 1762 – 1814 ) produced a philosophy similar to Kant's, but without a thing-in-itself.

At one time Nietzsche planned to write a dissertation on the notion of organism in Kant's philosophy ( letter to Paul Deussen ).

He argued for a revised version of Kant's notion of the schema as the crucial imaginative link between our concrete perceptions of an object ( e. g. my dog Fido ) and our experience of categories ( the class of things called dogs ).

Examples from the history of philosophy include Immanuel Kant's distinction between the synthesis of manifold impressions and the faculties of the understanding ; Martin Heidegger's split between the ontic and the ontological ; and Jacques Derrida's notion of différance / presence.

This is inspired by Per Martin-Löf's development of Kant's notion of judgement, in the 1983 Siena Lectures.

Like Hegel before him, Heidegger rejected the Kantian notion of autonomy, pointing out that humans were social and historical beings, as well as Kant's notion of a constituting consciousness.

This version of " critical " theory derives from Kant's ( 18th-century ) and Marx's ( 19th Century ) use of the term " critique ", as in Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Marx's concept that his work Das Kapital ( Capital ) forms a " critique of political economy.

" For Kant's transcendental idealism, " critique " means examining and establishing the limits of the validity of a faculty, type, or body of knowledge, especially through accounting for the limitations imposed by the fundamental, irreducible concepts in use in that knowledge system.

Yet he attacks the idealism of Schopenhauer and Descartes with an argument similar to Kant's critique of the latter ( see above );

", Michel Foucault proposed a concept of critique based on Kant's distinction between " private " and " public " uses of reason.

Smith contended that this showed how Kant's critique can be a solace and a refuge, as well as a means to sharpen the wit.

While risking oversimplification, Kant's " transcendental " critique, can be contrasted to Hegel's " immanent ," dialectical idealist critique.

Also referred to as Kant's " first critique ," it was followed in 1788 by the Critique of Practical Reason and in 1790 by the Critique of Judgment.

However, in Kant's mind, this only separated dogmatism from critique philosophy: neither sciences nor philosophy must answer questions about noumenons, since this superate their innate capacities.

According to philosopher Gianni Vattimo, criticism is used more frequently to denote literary criticism or art criticism, that is the interpretation and evaluation of literature and art ; while critique may be used in the English language to refer to more general and profound writing as Kant's Critique of pure reason.

In philosophical contexts, such as law or academics, critique is most influenced by Kant's use of the term to mean a reflective examination of the validity and limits of a human capacity or of a set of philosophical claims.

Later thinkers such as Hegel used the word ' critique ' in a broader way than Kant's sense of the word, to mean the systematic inquiry into the limits of a doctrine or set of concepts.

This corresponds to Hegel's critique of Kant's transcendental philosophy.

Maritain's epistemology is not " critical " in Kant's sense, which held that one could only know anything after undertaking a thorough critique of one's cognitive abilities.

Kant's description of the making of a concept has been paraphrased as "... to conceive is essentially to think in abstraction what is common to a plurality of possible instances ..." ( H. J.

Singer's universalising step applies to interests without reference to who has them, whereas a Kantian's applies to the judgments of rational agents ( in Kant's kingdom of ends, or Rawls's Original Position, etc .).

According to him, one of the major achievements of modern philosophy is phenomenology because it disproved the kinds of dualism that set the existent up as having a " hidden " nature ( such as Kant's noumenon ); Phenomenology has removed " the illusion of worlds behind the scene.

This moral universalism has come to be seen as the distinctive aspect of Kant's moral philosophy and has had wide social impact in the legal and political concepts of human rights and equality.

Things that are not relative-that are " ends in themselves ", in Kant's terminology-are by extension beyond all value, and a thing is an end in itself only if it has a moral dimension ; if it represents a choice between right and wrong.

In Kant's words: " Morality, and humanity as capable of it, is that which alone has dignity.

Kant's view that morality should be determined by the categorical imperative – duty to the moral law, rather than acting for a specific end – has been viewed as incompatible with divine command theory.

Philosopher and theologian John E. Hare has noted that some philosophers see divine command theory as an example of Kant's heteronomous will – motives besides the moral law, which Kant regarded as non-moral.

Kant's " epistemological phenomenalism ", as it has been called, is therefore quite distinct from Berkeley's earlier ontological version.

In his Translator's Preface, Müller wrote, " The bridge of thoughts and sighs that spans the whole history of the Aryan world has its first arch in the Veda, its last in Kant's Critique .… While in the Veda we may study the childhood, we may study in Kant's Critique of Pure Reason the perfect manhood of the Aryan mind .… The materials are now accessible, and the English-speaking race, the race of the future, will have in Kant's Critique another Aryan heirloom, as precious as the Veda — a work that may be criticised, but can never be ignored.

Transcendental idealism is associated with formalistic idealism on the basis of passages from Kant's Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics, although recent research has tended to dispute this identification.

Zöllner's question was addressed to a broad intellectual public, in reply to Biester's essay entitled: " Proposal, not to engage the clergy any longer when marriages are conducted " ( April 1783 ) and a number of leading intellectuals replied with essays, of which Kant's is the most famous and has had the most impact.

The aesthetic ideas underlying the absolute music debate relate to Kant's aesthetic disinterestedness from his Critique of Aesthetic Judgment, and has led to numerous arguments among musicians, composers, music historians and critics.

For instance, " The Art of Walking ," a course involving the exploration of Immanuel Kant's " Critique of Judgment " while hiking through the Central Kentucky landscape, has garnered national attention as a signature class at Centre.

Schneewind has edited several books, among them a two-volume collection of source material, Moral Philosophy from Montaigne to Kant, a translation of Kant's Lectures on Ethics for the Cambridge University Press edition of Kant in English, and a collection of essays on philanthropy.

* A Companion to Kant, By Graham Bird, John Wiley and Sons, 2009 p. 486ff has an article about Trendelenburg's dipute with Fisher over Kant's definition of person

Kant's idea of good taste excludes fashion, which can be understood only in its empirical form, and has no connection with the harmony of ideal consensus.

Pierre Laberge ( 1972 ) observes that Kant's famous critique of physicotheology in the Critique of Pure Reason ( 1781 ; second edition 1787 ) has tended to obscure the fact that in his early work, General History of Nature and Theory of the Heavens ( 1755 ), Kant defended a physicotheology that at the time was startlingly original, but that succeeded only to the extent that it concealed what Laberge terms a theophysics (" ce que nous appellerons une théophysique ").