After a disappointing interview, he shut himself in his lodgings and threw all his energies into the composition of an essay which would compel Kant's attention and interest.

Zöllner's question was addressed to a broad intellectual public, in reply to Biester's essay entitled: " Proposal, not to engage the clergy any longer when marriages are conducted " ( April 1783 ) and a number of leading intellectuals replied with essays, of which Kant's is the most famous and has had the most impact.

Kant's essay also addressed the causes of a lack of enlightenment and the preconditions necessary to make it possible for people to enlighten themselves.

In 1984 French sociologist / philosopher Michel Foucault published an essay on Kant's work, giving it the same title (" Qu ' est-ce que les Lumières ?").

Foucault's essay reflected on the contemporary status of the project of enlightenment, inverting much of Kant's reasoning but concluding that enlightenment ' still entails work on our limits '.

* An English translation of Kant's essay

Kant's essay describes the Enlightenment as " man's release from his self-incurred tutelage ".

The book also includes an essay by Leonard Peikoff in which he argues against Immanuel Kant's theory of analytic propositions and synthetic propositions.

The other modern plans for a perpetual peace descend from Immanuel Kant's 1795 essay, " Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch " ( Zum ewigen Frieden.

Kant's essay in some ways resembles, yet differs significantly from modern democratic peace theory.

Kant's essay is a three-legged stool ( besides the preliminary disarmament ).

# Deontological ethics, notions based on ' rules ' i. e. that there is an obligation to perform the ' right ' action, regardless of actual consequences ( epitomized by Kant's notion of the Categorical Imperative )

Philosopher G. H. R. Parkinson notes a common objection to Kant's argument: that what ought to be done does not necessarily entail that it is possible.

She proposes that Kant's first two premises only entail that we must try to achieve the perfect good, not that it is actually attainable.

He argues that Kant's " aesthetic " merely represents an experience that is the product of an elevated class habitus and scholarly leisure as opposed to other possible and equally valid " aesthetic " experiences which lay outside Kant's narrow definition.

" Critical philosophy " is also used as another name for Kant's philosophy itself.

Kant's description of the making of a concept has been paraphrased as "... to conceive is essentially to think in abstraction what is common to a plurality of possible instances ..." ( H. J.

Ignored by many in " critical realist " circles, however, is that Kant's immediate impetus for writing his " Critique of Pure Reason " was to address problems raised by David Hume's skeptical empiricism which, in attacking metaphysics, employed reason and logic to argue against the knowability of the world and common notions of causation.

Kant's identification with deism is controversial.

An argument in favor of Kant as deist is Alan Wood's " Kant's Deism ," in P. Rossi and M. Wreen ( eds.

), Kant's Philosophy of Religion Re-examined ( Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991 ); an argument against Kant as deist is Stephen Palmquist's " Kant's Theistic Solution ".

Immanuel Kant's theory of ethics is considered deontological for several different reasons.

John Stuart Mill ( and also Kant's pupil Herbart ) argued that the predicative nature of existence was proved by sentences like " A centaur is a poetic fiction " or " A greatest number is impossible " ( Herbart ).

His system is based on Immanuel Kant's, as his chosen term " néo-criticisme " indicates ; but it is a transformation rather than a continuation of Kantianism.

Fichte denied Kant's noumenon and held that consciousness constitutes its own foundation, that the mental life of the Ego, of pure selfhood, relies upon nothing wholly external to itself and that the hypothesis of an outer world of any kind is the same thing as admitting a Kantian realm.

The novel also acts as a terrifying realization of some of Kant's fundamental ideas ; Sartre uses the idea of the autonomy of the will ( that morality is derived from our ability to choose in reality ; the ability to choose being derived from human freedom ; embodied in the famous saying " Condemned to be free ") as a way to show the world's indifference to the individual.

The freedom that Kant exposed is here a strong burden, for the freedom to act towards objects is ultimately useless, and the practical application of Kant's ideas proves to be bitterly rejected.

Immanuel Kant's approach to philosophy, his ' criticism ', is thoroughly selfconscious and reflexive.

Although Hegel's philosophy of history is similar to Immanuel Kant's, and Karl Marx's theory of revolution towards the common good is partly based on Kant's view of history.

But Stephen Palmquist explains that this is part of Kant's definition of the term, to the extent that anyone who claims to have found a way of making the thing in itself knowable must be adopting a non-Kantian position.

* A Companion to Kant, By Graham Bird, John Wiley and Sons, 2009 p. 486ff has an article about Trendelenburg's dipute with Fisher over Kant's definition of person

Taking simply by itself, Kant's political philosophy, being essentially a legal doctrine, rejects by definition the opposition between moral education and the play of passions as alternate foundations for social life.

A notable exception to the lack of such debate is Gabrielle Thuller, who points to how kitsch criticism is based on Immanuel Kant's philosophy of aesthetics.

Kant's practical reason was an attempt to give scientific legitimacy to his lack of intellectual conscience.

Kant's notion of critique has been associated with the disestablishment of false, unprovable, or dogmatic philosophical, social, and political beliefs, because Kant's critique of reason involved the critique of dogmatic theological and metaphysical ideas and was intertwined with the enhancement of ethical autonomy and the Enlightenment critique of superstition and irrational authority.

In recent years, Edmund Jephcott and Stanford University Press have published new translations of some of Adorno's lectures and books, including Introduction to Sociology, Problems of Moral Philosophy and his transcribed lectures on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Aristotle's " Metaphysics ", and a new translation of the Dialectic of Enlightenment.

It reacted against Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and was closely linked with both romanticism and the revolutionary politics of the Enlightenment.

Later, Michel Foucault took up Kant's formulation in an attempt to find a place for the individual in his post-structuralist philosophy and to come to terms with the problematic legacy of the Enlightenment.

In the twelfth chapter, " The Collapse Of The Kosmos ", Wilber uses Charles Taylor's account of the effects of the Enlightenment paradigm to show how vertical depth was collapsed into horizontal span and how the ascending drive was dissociated into the " Ego camp " ( Kant's and Fichte's Transcendent Ego ) and the " Eco camp " ( Spinoza's deified Nature ).

" This is in accordance with Kant's usual concern with the correspondence between subjectivity ( the way that we think ) and objectivity ( the external world ).

" For Kant's transcendental idealism, " critique " means examining and establishing the limits of the validity of a faculty, type, or body of knowledge, especially through accounting for the limitations imposed by the fundamental, irreducible concepts in use in that knowledge system.

Fichte did not endorse Kant's argument for the existence of noumena, of " things in themselves ", the supra-sensible reality beyond the categories of human reason.

Accordingly, there are strict limits to what can be expected from any a priori deduction of experience, and this limitation, for Fichte, equally applies to Kant's transcendental philosophy.

Kant's analytical judgments of propositions depend on presupposed concepts which are the same for all people.

The philosopher Immanuel Kant's treatment of human knowledge had a special role for geometry.

Many accounts of Kant's philosophy treat " noumenon " and " thing-in-itself " as synonymous, and there is textual evidence for this relationship.

In 1881 he received his doctorate for his thesis on Kant's philosophy of matter, a part of which was subsequently published as " The Nature of Matter According to Kant's Physical Monadology ".

His marked opposition to the philosophy of Hegel, then dominant in Berlin, was shown more clearly in the short tract, Neue Grundlegung zur Metaphysik ( 1822 ), intended to be the programme for his lectures as Privatdozent, and in the able treatise, Grundlegung zur Physik der Sitten ( 1822 ), written, in direct antagonism to Kant's Metaphysic of Ethics, to deduce ethical principles from a basis of empirical feeling.

He continued his schooling at the Gymnasium for six years, and showed interest in philosophy, logic, and Kant's work involving the nature of knowledge obtained from experience with reality.

One of the first philosophers to attempt to grapple with Kant's philosophy was Johann Gottlieb Fichte, whose development of Kantian metaphysics became a source of inspiration for the Romantics.

Introduced in Kant's Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals, it may be defined as a way of evaluating motivations for action.

Kant's last application of the categorical imperative in Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals is of charity.

Gewirth's views on human dignity are typically compared and contrasted with Kant's, for like Kant he theorizes that human dignity arises from agency.

The Golden Rule demands that one's actions conform to one's own standard, whereas Kant's moral imperative places the standard for moral good in reason ( directly contradicting Hume, who claimed reason could not be a ground for moral choices ).

Central to this effort is an account of the circumstances of justice, inspired by David Hume, and a fair choice situation for parties facing such circumstances, similar to some of Immanuel Kant's views.

Kant's view that morality should be determined by the categorical imperative – duty to the moral law, rather than acting for a specific end – has been viewed as incompatible with divine command theory.

Immanuel Kant's theory of ethics is considered deontological for several different reasons.

( Bolzano's use of the term an sich differs greatly from that of Kant ; for Kant's use of the term see an sich.