One of the most famous was the Minié system, invented by French Army Captain Claude-Étienne Minié, which relied on a conical bullet ( known as a Minié ball ) with a hollow skirt at the base of the bullet.

The extra grip also spun the bullet more consistently, which increased the range from about 50 yards for a smooth bore musket to about 300 yards for a rifle using the Minié system.

The Minié system allowed conical bullets to be loaded into rifles just as quickly as round balls in smooth bores, which allowed rifle muskets to replace muskets on the battlefield.

In 1855, the British adopted the Minié ball for their Enfield rifles.

Roughly 90 % of the battlefield casualties in this war were caused by Minié balls fired from rifles.

In Minié rifles, no patch is used as the projectile has a base which expands to grip the rifling.

From around 1750 rifles began to be used by skirmishers ( Frederick the Great raised a Jager unit in 1744, from game-keepers and foresters, armed with rifles ) but the very slow rate of fire of muzzle-loading rifles restricted their use until the invention of the Minié ball.

Meanwhile, the forces of Chōshū and Satsuma were outnumbered 3: 1 but fully modernized with Armstrong howitzers, Minié rifles and a few Gatling guns.

The expanding skirt of the Minié ball also solved the problem that earlier tight fitting bullets were difficult to load as black powder residue fouled the inside of the barrel.

From the Minié rifle and beyond, the rifle has become ever more potent at long range strikes.

After a successful day of testing of his method at the Polygon in France he had a conversation with Claude-Étienne Minié who stated that a key barrier to the use of the larger, heavier spinning projectiles would be the strength of the gun and in particular "... he did not consider it safe in practice to fire a 30-lb.

The soft lead Minié ball was first introduced in 1847 by Claude-Étienne Minié, a captain in the French Army.

As designed by Minié, the bullet was conical in shape with a hollow cavity in the rear, which was fitted with a little iron cap instead of a wooden plug.

* The projectile, most typically a solid lead ball, loose shot, a Minié ball or a jacketed modern bullet in a plastic sabot.

Until the advent of the hollow-base Minié ball, which obturates upon firing to seal the bore and engage the rifling, the patch provided the best means of getting the projectile to engage the rifling.

Despite this, smoothbores predominated until the advent of the Minié ball – by which time the percussion cap had made the flintlock obsolete.

The recently invented Minié ball bullet combined with this well executed manoeuvre caused the Russians to hesitate in their attack.

The term " musket " is applied to a variety of weapons, including the long, heavy guns with matchlock or wheel lock and loose powder fired with the gun barrel resting on a stand, and also lighter weapons with Snaphance, flintlock or caplock and bullets using a stabilizing spin ( Minié ball ), affixed with a bayonet.

* Enfield Pattern 1853 Rifle-Musket which used the Minié ball ammunition.

) After his death, his personal effects included his Civil War Officer's uniform still stained with his blood and ' torn with shot ' as well as the carefully wrapped Minié balls that had wounded him three times in separate battles.

* Weaponry: The Rifle-Musket and the Minié Ball-Allan W. Howey, for the Civil War Times magazine

In the 1840s and 1850s, many smooth bore muskets had their barrels rifled so that they could fire the new Minié ball.

In contrast to submachine guns and autocannons, machine guns ( like rifles ) tend to share the characteristic of a very high ratio of barrel length to caliber ( a long barrel for a small caliber ); indeed, a true machine gun is essentially a fully automatic rifle, and often the primary criterion for a machine gun as opposed to an automatic rifle is the presence of a quick-change barrel or other cooling system ( see below ).

Generally, the difference between an automatic rifle and a machine gun comes down to weight and feed system ; rifles, with their relatively light components ( which overheat quickly ) and small magazines, are incapable of sustained automatic fire in the way that machine guns are.

European armies continued to develop bolt-action rifles through the latter half of the Nineteenth Century, first adopting tubular magazines as on the Kropatschek rifle and the Lebel rifle, a magazine system pioneered by the Winchester rifle of 1866.

The Mauser M 98 bolt system was introduced in the Mauser Gewehr 98 and is the most common bolt action system in the world, being in use in nearly all modern hunting rifles and the majority of military bolt-action rifles until the middle of the 20th century The Mauser system is stronger than that of the Lee-Enfield with its two locking lugs just behind the bolt head is able to better handle higher pressure cartridges ( i. e. " Magnum " calibre centrefire rifle cartridges ), while the Lee-Enfield or Mosin-Nagant actions require some strengthening to do the same task.

The Lee-Enfield bolt action system was introduced in 1889 with the Lee-Metford and later Lee-Enfield rifles ( the bolt system is named after the designer and the barrel rifling after the Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield ), and is a " cock on closing " action in which the forward thrust of the bolt cocks the action.

In the years leading up to WWII, the Lee-Enfield bolt system was used in numerous commercial sporting and hunting rifles manufactured by such firms in the UK as BSA, LSA, and Parker-Hale, as well as by SAF Lithgow in Australia.

Vast numbers of ex-military SMLE Mk III rifles were sporterised post-WWII to create cheap, effective hunting rifles, and the Lee-Enfield bolt system is used in the M10 and No 4 Mk IV rifles manufactured by Australian International Arms.

Although this bolt system has been rarely used in commercial sporting rifles ( the Vostok brand target rifles being the most recognized ) and never outside of Russia, large numbers of military surplus Mosin-Nagant rifles have been sporterized for use as hunting rifles in the years since WWII.

A large number of sporting rifles were made with this system, as it allowed easier loading compared with muzzle loading with a tight fitting bullet and patch.

This system was improved in the 1770s by Colonel Patrick Ferguson and 100 experimental rifles used in the American Revolutionary War.

The single-pump system is usually found in target rifles and pistols, where the higher muzzle energy of a multi-stroke pumping system is not required.

Programmed cell death in plants has a number of molecular similarities to animal apoptosis, but it also has differences, notably the presence of a cell wall and the lack of an immune system which removes the pieces of the dead cell.

Notable in his " system " were concepts such as overprotection of pieces and pawns under attack, control of the center by pieces instead of pawns, blockading of opposing pieces ( notably the passed pawns ) and prophylaxis.

Chen Zhuo's work has been lost, but information on his system of constellations survives in Tang period records, notably by Qutan Xida.

Some of these elements, notably thorium ( atomic number 90 ) and uranium ( atomic number 92 ), have one or more isotopes with half-lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy elements before the formation of our solar system.

Chaosium has licensed other publishers to create supplements using their rule system, notably including Delta Green by Pagan Publishing.

Its design provides constructs that map efficiently to typical machine instructions, and therefore it found lasting use in applications that had formerly been coded in assembly language, most notably system software like the Unix computer operating system.

* SPIKE, a scheduling system for earth or space based observatories and satellites, notably the Hubble Space Telescope.

One way around this was to use a ' hybrid system ', most notably the Roland MC-8 Microcomposer, where a microprocessor-based system controls an analog synthesizer, released in 1978.

The Command economy is distinguished from economic planning, and different theories for classifying the socioeconomic system of the Soviet Union exist ; most notably a command economy is associated with Bureaucratic collectivism, State capitalism or State socialism.

Much of the expertise and equipment had to be acquired from abroad, notably from Britain, whose canal system was the most advanced in the world at that time.

To this end, Japan has funded many infrastructure projects in India, most notably in New Delhi's metro subway system and Maruti.

Moi came under pressure, notably by US ambassador Smith Hempstone, to restore a multi-party system, which he did by 1991.

Leo undertook a set of civil reforms including the abolition of the system of prepaying taxes which had weighed heavily upon the wealthier proprietors, the elevation of the serfs into a class of free tenants and the remodelling of family, maritime law and criminal law, notably substituting mutilation for the death penalty in many cases.

It is most frequently seen after lymph node dissection, surgery and / or radiation therapy, in which damage to the lymphatic system is caused during the treatment of cancer, most notably breast cancer.

Modern mainframes, notably the IBM zSeries, System z9 and System z10 servers, offer two levels of virtualization: logical partitions ( LPARs, via the PR / SM facility ) and virtual machines ( via the z / VM operating system ).

Today further experimental research on Mach appears to have ended, although Mach and its derivatives are in use in a number of commercial operating systems, such as NeXTSTEP and OPENSTEP, and most notably Mac OS X using the XNU operating system kernel which incorporates an earlier ( non-microkernel ) Mach as a major component.

Some notably successful NLP systems developed in the 1960s were SHRDLU, a natural language system working in restricted " blocks worlds " with restricted vocabularies, and ELIZA, a simulation of a Rogerian psychotherapist, written by Joseph Weizenbaum between 1964 to 1966.

Deism was a religious philosophy in common currency in colonial times, and some Founding Fathers ( most notably Thomas Paine, who was an explicit proponent of it, and Benjamin Franklin, who spoke of it in his Autobiography ) are identified more or less with this system.

Propaganda accounts of Muslim-Christian hostility came into being to support that idea: most notably, the Chanson de Roland, a highly mythical contemporary French re-creation of the Battle of Roncevaux Pass ( 778 ) dealing with the Iberian Saracens, and taught as true in the French educational system until not long ago.

A software system for managing the hardware called an operating system was also introduced, most notably by Unix in 1969.

A few patched versions of QDOS were produced, most notably Minerva which gradually evolved into a completely rewritten operating system, offering improved speed, with multitasking SuperBASIC interpreters.