Molecular clock calculations estimate the origin of stem group Malpighiales at around 100 Mya ( million years ago ) and the origin of crown group Malpighiales at about 90 Mya.

Molecular phylogenetics has also been used to estimate the dates when species diverged, but there is controversy about the reliability of the molecular clock on which such estimates depend.

Molecular clock and fossil dating suggest echidnas split from platypuses 19 – 48 million years ago.

* Molecular clock

* Molecular clock explanation of the molecular equidistance phenomenon

simple: Molecular clock

# REDIRECT Molecular clock

Molecular clock analyses suggest that P. falciparum is as old as the human line ; the two species diverged at the same time as humans and chimpanzees.

* Molecular clock hypothesis

Molecular clock analyses suggest that the ancestor of the nesomyines colonized Madagascar about 20-25 million years ago.

Molecular evidence suggests that the Phycodnaviridae may have evolved from the family Iridoviridae.

Molecular evidence indicates that the lineage of gibbons ( family Hylobatidae ) diverged from Great Apes some 18-12 million years ago, and that of orangutans ( subfamily Ponginae ) diverged from the other Great Apes at about 12 million years ; there are no fossils that clearly document the ancestry of gibbons, which may have originated in a so-far-unknown South East Asian hominoid population, but fossil proto-orangutans may be represented by Sivapithecus from India and Griphopithecus from Turkey, dated to around 10 million years ago.

Molecular orbitals are said to be degenerate if they have the same energy.

Molecular studies, however, have shown that the Cetacea descend from the Artiodactyl ancestors, although the precise phylogeny within the order remains uncertain.

of Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology ( India ) concluded that the " lower caste groups might have originated with the hierarchical divisions that arose within the tribal groups with the spread of Neolithic agriculturalists, much earlier than the arrival of Aryan speakers ", and " the Indo-Europeans established themselves as upper castes among this already developed caste-like class structure within the tribes.

Molecular phylogenetic studies have suggested that Perissodactyla and Cetartiodactyla are closest to Carnivora and Pholidota rather than to Pseudungulata.

These have included: Hugh Pelham, Director of the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology ; Daniel St. Johnston, Chairman of the Gurdon Institute ; Jim Smith, Director of the MRC National Institute for Medical Research ; Richard Treisman, Director of CRUK London Research Institute and Peter Lachmann, Founding President of The Academy of Medical Sciences.

At Cambridge he founded and chaired ( 1962 – 79 ) The Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, fourteen of whose scientists have won Nobel Prizes.

Molecular phylogeny studies, however, have shown that the mysterious mesozoans are polyphyletic.

Molecular excitons typically have characteristic lifetimes on the order of nanoseconds, after which the ground electronic state is restored and the molecule undergoes photon or phonon emission.

Molecular excitons have several interesting properties, one of which is energy transfer ( see Förster resonance energy transfer ) whereby if a molecular exciton has proper energetic matching to a second molecule's spectral absorbance, then an exciton may transfer ( hop ) from one molecule to another.

Molecular clocks have been used to suggest an origin in the Pacific in the Paleocene.

Molecular data have backed up classifications based on geography and chromosome number, but following morphological data, such as the structure of the leaves and stems, do not appear to produce a phylogenetic classification.

Molecular systematic studies have suggested that these families are not closely related to each other and the APG II system ( 2003 ) assigns them to several different orders: Hamamelidaceae and Cercidiphyllaceae to Saxifragales, Eupteleaceae to Ranunculales, Platanaceae to Proteales, and Myrothamnaceae to Gunnerales.

Molecular studies have been made on dugong populations using mitochondrial DNA.

Molecular evidence shows that some limited number of Hox genes have existed in the Cnidaria since before the earliest true Bilatera, making these genes pre-Paleozoic.

") Molecular phylogenetics have clarified the relatedness of some associated genera, and at least nine genera that were previously included in Cornaceae have been eliminated from the order Cornales entirely, but the circumscription of Cornaceae is still unclear.

Molecular genetics study suggests that surviving Amerindian populations derived from a theoretical single founding population, possibly from only 50 to 70 genetic contributors Preliminary research, restricted to only 9 genomic regions ( or loci ) have shown a genetic link between original Americas and Asia populations.

The admiral at the head of the Lusitania fleet disobeys their order and does what he believes Ender Wiggin, the first Xenocide, would have done, and fires the Molecular Disruption Device ( MDD ).

Molecular evidence, that is, a specific pulsed-field gel electrophoresis profile, suggests that the distinct genotype of El Tor strain which appeared in Calcutta in 1993, may have spread to the African subcontinent.

Molecular studies have found the Hamerkop to be the closest relative of the Shoebill.

Molecular phylogenies of extant gymnosperms have conflicted with morphological characters with regard to whether the gymnosperms as a whole ( including gnetophytes ) comprise a monophyletic group or a paraphyletic one that gave rise to angiosperms.

Molecular trees have had some difficulty resolving relationships between the different groups.

Molecular analytical techniques developed in the late 20th century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification.

During the next decade, confocal fluorescence microscopy was developed into a fully mature technology, in particular by groups working at the University of Amsterdam and the European Molecular Biology Laboratory ( EMBL ) in Heidelberg and their industry partners.

As a witch and Charmed One, Piper has also developed a number of magical powers which include Molecular Immobilization, Molecular Combustion, and Molecular Acceleration.

In 2008 the " Center for Molecular Biomedicine " ( CMB ) and the interdisciplinary research center " Laboratory of the Enlightenment " were developed as the university's youngest research institutions.

The newest TiN coated gun comes in a " Tiger Stripe " pattern which was developed by Molecular Metallurgy Inc.

It was developed in Slater's Solid State and Molecular Theory Group ( SSMTG ) at MIT using the resources of the Cooperative Computing Laboratory.

The University of Ulster is particularly strong in the field of biomedical sciences, and a Centre for Molecular Biosciences ( located at Coleraine ) is one of the major projects developed by the University.

From its modest beginnings in the 1890s as the first state medical school in Texas, the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston ( UTMB ) has developed into a large, sophisticated health science complex with numerous schools and institutes, including: a Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, School of Nursing, School of Health Professions, Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, Institute for the Medical Humanities, an affiliated Shriners Burns Hospital, the Sealy Center for Molecular Medicine, the Sealy Center for Structural Biology, the Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, the Center for Addiction Research, the Educational Cancer Center, the Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Women ’ s Health, the Insyitute for Translational Sciences, the Galveston National Laboratory ( GNL ), the Sealy Center for Cancer Cell Biology, the Sealy Center for Environmental Health and Medicine, the World Health Organization Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, the Stark Diabetes Center, the Center for Biomedical Engineering, the Center for Environmental Toxicology, the Sealy Center on Aging, the George P. and Cynthia Woods Mitchell Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, and the Sealy Center for Vaccine Development.

Molecular orbital theory was developed, in the years after valence bond theory had been established ( 1927 ), primarily through the efforts of Friedrich Hund, Robert Mulliken, John C. Slater, and John Lennard-Jones.

Molecular set theory was introduced by Anthony Bartholomay, and its applications were developed in mathematical biology and especially in Mathematical Medicine.

* The Molecular Plant Breeding CRC developed Cross Outcome Prediction technology for predicting the success of wheat breeding.

* The Molecular Plant Breeding CRC, in conjunction with the Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics developed " Get into Genes ", an education program about the role of gene technology in agriculture.

Research at the IBMC is developed through two main lines of research: Molecular and Cellular Design and Molecular Diagnosis and Therapy.

NWChem has been developed by the Molecular Sciences Software group of the Theory, Modeling & Simulation program of the Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory ( EMSL ) at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory ( PNNL ).

This technology was further developed and improved by groups at the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology with Winter and McCafferty and The Scripps Research Institute with Lerner and Barbas for display of proteins such as antibodies for therapeutic protein engineering.

With higher performance processors and tools to rapidly create the volumetric tessellations, real-time finite element systems began to be used in games, beginning with Star Wars: The Force Unleashed that used Digital Molecular Matter for the deformation and destruction effects of wood, steel, flesh and pants using an algorithm developed by Dr. James O ' Brien as a part of his PhD thesis.

As a witch Melinda has also developed a number of magical powers which include Telekinesis, Premonitions, and Molecular Immobilization.

* Molecular Interactive Collaborative Environment ( MICE ) developed at the San Diego Supercomputer Center – provides collaborative access and manipulation of complex, three-dimensional molecular models as captured in various scientific visualization programs ( Chin and Lansing, 2004 );

* Molecular Modeling Collaboratory ( MMC ) developed at University of California, San Francisco – allows remote biologists to share and interactively manipulate three-dimensional molecular models in applications such as drug design and protein engineering ( Chin and Lansing, 2004 );