Louis XVIII's restoration to the throne in 1814 was effected largely through the support of Napoleon's former foreign minister, < span lang =" fr "> Talleyrand </ span >, who convinced the victorious Allied Powers of the desirability of a < span lang =" fr "> Bourbon </ span > Restoration.

Napoleon's large-scale program of public works, and his extravagantly expensive foreign policy, had created rapidly mounting government debts ; the annual deficit was about fr. 100 million, and the cumulative debt had reached nearly fr. 1 billion.

Napoleon's position was further undermined during the 1860s by his failures in foreign policy.

Another example of Napoleon's adventurism in foreign policy was the French intervention in Mexico ( January 1862 – March 1867 ).

Rouher had to defend Napoleon's foreign adventures as well as the free trade treaties and the extravagances of Baron Haussmann for which he was directly responsible.

He was again foreign minister for a few months after the crisis of 1806 ( April – July 1807 ); but Napoleon's resentment was implacable, and one of the conditions of the terms granted to Prussia by the Treaty of Tilsit was Hardenberg's dismissal.

Perhaps at the urging of < span lang =" fr "> Talleyrand </ span >, Napoleon's foreign minister, and < span lang =" fr "> Fouché, Napoleon </ span >' s minister of police who had warned that " the air is full of daggers ", the First Consul came to the political conclusion that the Duke must be dealt with.

Working at cross-purposes to Napoleon was his former foreign minister Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord who had by this time come to the conclusion that Napoleon and his war policies were leading France to destruction, and who secretly advised Alexander to resist Napoleon's demands.

This arrangement also outlasted three centuries, with four Swiss regiments participating in Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, foreign military service of Swiss citizens being finally outlawed in 1848 with the formation of Switzerland as a federal state.

Zhukovsky's rise at court began with Napoleon's invasion of 1812 and with the consequent revilement of French as the favored foreign language of the Russian aristocracy.

During the Hundred Days he once more entered Napoleon's service, and, after the battle of Waterloo, as minister of foreign affairs under the executive commission, it was he who signed the convention of the 3rd of July 1815, by which Paris was handed over to the allies.

Napoleon's reckless foreign policy was inciting criticism.

Talleyrand was again influential in seeing that the Bourbons reigned, as was Fouché, Napoleon's minister of police during the Hundred Days.

Under the French name of Otranto it was created a duché grand-fief de l ' Empire in the Napoleonic kingdom of Naples for Joseph Fouché, Napoleon's minister of Police ( 1809 ), the grandfather of Margareta Fouché.

In the final skirmish of the Napoleonic Wars, Marshal Davout, Napoleon's minister of war, was defeated by Blücher at Issy on 3 July 1815 after some severe fighting.

As secretary to John Armstrong, a United States minister to France, he went abroad in 1804, and was in Paris at the time of Napoleon's coronation.

Instead Napoleon's expedition sparked the Greater Poland Uprising, which led to the establishment of the Duchy of Warsaw under the rule of King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony with Prince Poniatowski as war minister.

Napoleon's son Napoleon François Charles Joseph ( 1811 – 1832 ) was created king of Rome ( 1811 – 1814 ) and was later styled Napoleon II by loyalists of the dynasty, though he only ruled for two weeks after his father's abdication.

# Joseph Bonaparte ( Corte 1768 – Florence 1844 ), King of Naples and Spain, married Julie Clary, sister of Napoleon's childhood sweetheart, Désirée, who was to become the wife of General Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, the later Charles XIV of Sweden.

Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, was made King of Spain after Charles IV abdicated.

An expeditionary force under Napoleon's brother-in-law Charles Leclerc in January 1802, supplemented by 20, 000 troops over the next 21 months, had tried to re-conquer the territory and re-establish slavery.

In 1810 French Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's top generals, was elected Crown Prince Charles by the Riksdag.

Charles Minard's information graphic of Napoleon's march

Some innovations were included, upon request by Villèle: though Charles was hostile towards the 1814 Charter, commitment to the ' constitutional charter ' was affirmed, and four of Napoleon's generals were in attendance.

Joséphine had lovers, including a Hussar lieutenant, Hippolyte Charles, during Napoleon's Italian campaign.

Napoleon's return from Elba put these plans on hold, although Lawrence did make a visit to Paris, where his friend Lord Charles Stewart was ambassador, and saw the art that Napoleon had looted from Italy, including Raphael's Transfiguration, the painting he had reproduced for his silver-gilt palette as a boy.

She belonged to the Bernadotte dynasty, which had ruled in Sweden since 1818, when the founder, Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's generals, was elected crown prince of Sweden in 1810 and later succeeded the throne as Charles XIV of Sweden in 1818.

Charles XIV's son, Oscar I of Sweden, married Josephine of Leuchtenberg, granddaughter of Napoleon's first wife, the Empress Josephine.

On 23 August, at the Battle of Grossbeeren, south of Berlin, Crown Prince Charles of Sweden ( formerly French Marshal Bernadotte, Napoleon's own Marshal ) defeated his old comrade Marshal Oudinot.

* Rothenberg, Gunther E. Napoleon's Great Adversaries, The Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army, 1792 – 1814.

In the end however, Charles succeeded in avoiding a decisive defeat, preserving a combat-able army, which he directed north of the Danube, where he awaited Napoleon's next move.

Archduke Charles was by now well aware of Napoleon's intentions but remained fateful to his plan not to fight the battle on the flat Marchfeld plain, where the superior French cavalry would have given Napoleon a clear edge.

Still, the resolutely-led attack achieved Napoleon's main strategic goal, which was to pin down the Austrian forces in this sector, preventing Charles from reinforcing his battered left.

Notable artifacts include: Napoleon's Sèvres breakfast service, said to have been captured at the Battle of Waterloo ; Thomas Clarkson's chest, containing examples of 18th century African textiles, seeds and leatherwork which he used to illustrate his case for direct trade with Africa ; and the original manuscript of Charles Dickens ' Great Expectations.

Napoleon's troops, under the command of his brother-in-law, General Charles Emmanuel Leclerc, planned to seize control of the island by diplomatic means.

Charles Joseph Minard's 1861 diagram of French invasion of Russia | Napoleon's March-an early example of an information graphic.

* Charles Joseph Minard's 1861 diagram depicting Napoleon's Russian campaign of 1812

The Duke of Parma also usually held the title of Duke of Guastalla from 1735 ( when Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor took it from Mantua ) to 1847 ( when the territory was ceded to Modena ), again, except for the Napoleonic dukes, when Napoleon's sister Pauline was Duchess of Guastalla and of Varella.

Under his adoptive father, the reigning and yet powerless King Charles XIII of Sweden, the Crown Prince was effectively the regent of the country, and when Sweden sided with Napoleon's enemies, Bernadotte came to be seen as a traitor to his native France.

From 1811 on, in negotiation with Commissary-General John Charles Herries, he undertook to transfer money to pay Wellington's troops, on campaign in Portugal and Spain against Napoleon, and later to make subsidy payments to British allies when these organized new troops after Napoleon's disastrous Russian campaign.

The controversial scientific name of this species was given by Charles Lucien Bonaparte, Napoleon's nephew and a republican idealist, who described the bird from a badly damaged trade specimen purchased by British ornithologist Edward Wilson.