İnönü was also known for his work on the history of science in the Republic of Turkey and the Ottoman Empire.

Adeeb Khalid describes a bookstore in Samarqand that in 1914 sold " books in Tatar, Ottoman, Arabic, and Persian on topics such as history, geography, general science, medicine, and religion, in addition to dictionaries, atlases, charts, maps, and globes.

The reform aimed to break away the traditional dependency the Ottoman Empire on the transfer of science and technology by foreign experts.

Byzantinism or Byzantism is a term used in political science and philosophy to denote the political system and culture of the Byzantine Empire, and its spiritual successors, in particular, the Balkan states, the Ottoman Empire and Russia.

From 1899 till 1911 he worked for the museums of Berlin as a Foreign Director in Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, and was the science attaché of the German Embassy there.

By the late 18th century, a number of defeats in several wars with Russia led some people in the Ottoman Empire to conclude that the reforms of " Deli Petro " ( Peter the Mad, as Peter the Great was known in Turkey ) had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.

As musket technology rapidly improved in Western Europe and the Ottoman Empire, China often imported muskets, eventually losing the arms race to the West by 1750.

Moravian Serbia was governed by Stefan Lazarević who introduced modern military tactics and firearms to his army however the new technology failed to defeat the superior numbers of the Ottoman Empire.

This concentration made the initial Ottoman invasion very difficult and in the end fruitless, when combined with local uprisings, superior European technology, and lack of effective Ottoman leadership.

Whilst looking at Ottoman manufacture, a significant area of technology transfer, Quataert argues one must not only look at large factories but also the small workshops: " One will find then find that Ottoman industry was not a " dying, unadaptive, unevolving sector ... vital, creative, evolving and diverse ".

The financial problems of the Ottoman Empire were perceived to be at the heart of the growing disparity with the European powers, visible in territory, technology and warfare.

At about the same time super-sized bombards were phased out in Western Europe, the technology was transmitted to the Ottoman army by Orban, a Hungarian gunfounder, on the occasion of the Siege of Constantinople in 1453.

The subsequent Ottoman victories against Russia enabled the Ottoman Empire to advance to Moscow, had the Sultan wished.

Ahmed III left the finances of the Ottoman Empire in a flourishing condition, which had remarkably been obtained without excessive taxation or extortion procedures.

The subsequent years witnessed the gradual extinction of Byzantine rule in Asia Minor, as Orhan of the Ottoman Turks, who had already defeated Andronikos III at Pelekanos in 1329, took Nicaea in 1331 and Nicomedia in 1337.

The crop failure of 1873, the sultan's lavish expenditures for the Ottoman Navy and the new palaces which he had built, and the mounting public debt heightened public discontent.

In the year 1789, Tipu Sultan ruler of the Sultanate of Mysore sent an embassy to the Ottoman capitol of Istanbul, to Sultan Abdul Hamid I requesting urgent assistance against the British East India Company and had proposed an offensive and defensive consortium ; Sultan Abdul Hamid I, informed the ambassadors of the Sultanate of Mysore that the Ottoman Empire was still recuperating from the Austro-Ottoman War and the Russo-Turkish Wars.

) The mosques that were built after the conquest of Constantinople ( Istanbul ) by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, and influenced by the design of the 6th century Byzantine basilica of Hagia Sophia, had increasingly elevated and large central domes, which create a vertical emphasis that is intended to be more overwhelming ; in order to convey the divine power of Allah, the majesty of the Ottoman Sultan, and the governmental authority of the Ottoman State.

The military strategy relied largely on surprise, as Bulgaria had moved most of its troops near the border with the Ottoman Empire, in the southeast.

Bulgaria, which had secured Ottoman recognition of her independence in April 1909 and enjoyed the friendship of Russia, also looked to districts of Ottoman Thrace and Macedonia for expansion.

At its peak in the 16th through the 18th centuries, the Ottoman Empire had wrested control of the entire Black Sea area, which was for the time an " Ottoman lake ", on which Russian warships were prohibited.

Gladstone, however, saw the issue in moral terms, for Bulgarian Christians had been massacred by the Turks and Gladstone therefore believed it was immoral to support the Ottoman Empire.

In the Ottoman Empire, the Patriarch of Constantinople, for example, had de facto administrative, fiscal, cultural and legal jurisdiction, as well as spiritual, over all the Christians of the empire.

As a national revival occurred towards the end of the period of Ottoman rule ( mostly during the 19th century ), a modern Bulgarian literary language gradually emerged which drew heavily on Church Slavonic / Old Bulgarian ( and to some extent on literary Russian, which had preserved many lexical items from Church Slavonic ) and later reduced the number of Turkish and other Balkanic loans.

The Ottoman tax record and census from 1596 indicates that Bethlehem had a population of 1, 435, making it the 13th largest village in Palestine at the time.

It is possible that Bonaparte envisaged Aboukir Bay as a temporary anchorage: on 27 July he expressed the expectation that Brueys had already transferred his ships to Alexandria and three days later issued orders for the fleet to make for Corfu in preparation for naval operations against the Ottoman territories in the Balkans, although the courier carrying the instructions was intercepted and killed by Bedouin partisans.

By the early 20th century, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and Serbia had achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire, but large parts of their ethnic populations remained under Ottoman rule.

Serbia had gained substantial territory during the Russo-Turkish War, 1877 – 1878, while Greece acquired Thessaly in 1881 ( although it lost a small area back to the Ottoman Empire in 1897 ) and Bulgaria ( an autonomous principality since 1878 ) incorporated the formerly distinct province of Eastern Rumelia ( 1885 ).

At the same time, in October 1908, Austria-Hungary seized the opportunity of the Ottoman political upheaval to annex the de jure Ottoman province of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878 ( see Bosnian Crisis ), and Bulgaria declared itself a fully independent kingdom.

Some of his compositions have been collected in the album " European Music at the Ottoman Court " by the London Academy of Ottoman Court Music.

The city has traditionally been a pole of attraction, and was a major center for refugees from various ethnic backgrounds who immigrated to Anatolia from the Balkans during the loss of the Ottoman territories in Europe between the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

At its core, the term " Balkans " are States that have been shaped by membership of Byzantium and the Ottoman Empire.

At the end, the population which had not been able to escape, was deported to Edirne, Bursa and other Ottoman cities, leaving the city deserted except for the Jews of Balat and the Genoese of Pera.

One of Eugene's brothers, Louis Julius, had entered Imperial service the previous year, but he had been immediately killed fighting the Ottoman Turks in 1683.

Hoxha was born in Gjirokastër, a city in southern Albania ( then under the Ottoman Empire ) that has been home to many prominent families.

* The flag of Turkey, which is very similar to last flag of the old Ottoman Empire, has been an inspiration for the flag designs of many other Muslim nations.

The southern border with Egypt continued to be the international border which had been drawn in 1906 between the Ottoman Empire and the British Empire.

This new regime delivered the coup de grâce to the Ottoman state which had been practically wiped away from the world stage following the First World War.

The Ottoman forces estimated that 15, 000 officers and men had been killed during the campaign in south Macedonia, bringing total losses up to 41, 000 soldiers.

Given the Greek fleet's unpreparedness resulting from the premature outbreak of the war, such an early Ottoman attack might well have been able to achieve a crucial victory.

The most significant forces in the country's history have been the spread of Islam, Arabization, Ottoman and French colonization, and the struggle for independence.

By the late 1800's, the nation had become weak, and had been reduced to its present day size due to the encroachment of rival imperial powers such as the Ottoman Turks, the British, and the Russians.

Imperialism has been found in the histories of Japan, the Assyrian Empire, the Chinese Empire, the Roman Empire, Greece, the Byzantine Empire, the Persian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, ancient Egypt, and India.

After traditional land routes to India had been closed by the Ottoman Turks, Portugal hoped to use the sea route pioneered by Gama to break the Venetian trading monopoly.

When Kuwait became independent in 1961, Iraq claimed Kuwait, under the rationale that Kuwait had been part of the Ottoman Empire subject to Iraqi suzerainty.

The current castle, with a perimeter of, was principally constructed during the time of Venetian and Ottoman rule, although remains have been found dating settlements there back to 2000 B. C.

Known as " Ofioussa " ( having snakes ) and " Pityoussa " ( having pine trees ) in antiquity, during the medieval age the island was ruled by a number of external powers and has also been known as Scio ( Genoese ), Chio ( Italian ) and Sakız ( صاقيز — Ottoman Turkish ).

The relations between Kosovo's ethnic Albanian and Serb populations have been hostile since the rise of nationalism in the Balkans during the 19th century, rivalry which became strong after Serbia gained Kosovo from the Ottoman Empire in 1913 and after Albania became independent in the same year.

Since the emergence of the post-1943 state and after the destruction of the Ottoman Caliphate, national policy has been determined largely by a relatively restricted group of traditional regional and sectarian leaders.

Libya argued that the territory was inhabited by indigenous people who owed allegiance to the Senussi Order and subsequently to the Ottoman Empire, and that this title had been inherited by Libya.

If the former German and Ottoman territories had been ceded to the victorious powers directly, their economic value would have been credited to offset the Allies ' claims for war reparations.