Philosopher Stephen Pepper also distinguished between theories and models, and said in 1948 that general models and theories are predicated on a " root " metaphor that constrains how scientists theorize and model a phenomenon and thus arrive at testable hypotheses.

* Stephen Palmquist, " The Philosopher as a ' Secret Agent ' for Peace: Taking Seriously Kant's Revival of the ' Old Question '", in Valerio Rohden,

Philosopher Max Stirner, in his book The Ego and Its Own, was the first philosopher to call himself an egoist, though his writing makes clear that he desired not a new idea of morality ( ethical egoism ), but rather a rejection of morality ( amoralism ), as a nonexistent and limiting “ spook ”; for this, Stirner has been described as the first individualist anarchist.

Also of note is the work of the contemporary Philosopher of Law Ronald Dworkin who has advocated a constructivist theory of jurisprudence that can be characterized as a middle path between natural law theories and positivist theories of general jurisprudence.

Philosopher John Deely has argued for the contentious claim that the label " postmodern " for thinkers such as Derrida et al.

Philosopher Pascal Bruckner claimed that " Anti-racism in the UN has become the ideology of totalitarian regimes who use it in their own interests.

That fact has been confirmed explicitly by the papal letter Industriae tuae ( 880 ) approving the use of Old Church Slavonic, which says that the alphabet was " invented by Constantine the Philosopher ".

Paul Hsao records Chang Chung-Yuan saying that " Heidegger is the only Western Philosopher who not only intellectually understands but has intuitively grasped Taoist thought.

Philosopher Jürgen Habermas has described Foucault as a " crypto-normativist ", covertly reliant on the very Enlightenment principles he attempts to deconstruct.

Philosopher Richard Rorty has argued that Foucault's ' archaeology of knowledge ' is fundamentally negative, and thus fails to adequately establish any ' new ' theory of knowledge per se.

Philosopher Lynne Rudder Baker has outlined four main contemporary approaches to belief in her controversial book Saving Belief:

Philosopher of religion Keith Ward has said scientism is philosophically inconsistent or even self-refuting, as the truth of the statements " no statements are true unless they can be proven scientifically ( or logically )" or " no statements are true unless they can be shown empirically to be true " cannot themselves be proven scientifically, logically, or empirically.

Philosopher Ayn Rand argued that the notion of a fetus having a right to life is " vicious nonsense " and stated, " An embryo has no rights ... a child cannot acquire any rights until it is born.

Philosopher Murray Rothbard wrote that " no being has a right to live, unbidden, as a parasite within or upon some person's body " and that therefore the woman is entitled to eject the fetus from her body at any time.

But the Character and Philosopher is what he seems to pretend to, and to be a good deal conceited of: the Others are put on to comply with Les Manieres du Monde, but that you are to suppose his real characteristic ; and I can't but fancy he is a great Pretender in All kinds of Science, as well as that he really has acquired an uncommon Share in some '.

Philosopher and theologian John E. Hare has noted that some philosophers see divine command theory as an example of Kant's heteronomous will – motives besides the moral law, which Kant regarded as non-moral.

Carmy has said that "' Police Philosopher ' was born the day I spied an ad in a professional journal, seeking a professor of philosophy prepared to teach at a local precinct so that the cops could get college credit without having to be on campus.

* Philosopher Ken Wilber has written extensively on this, calling the omniscient view ( or subject – object distinction ) the fundamental modernist paradigm, and cataloging its effects on society, and in the way many subjects have been compressed into a " flat " view by this perspective

Philosopher and politician Roberto Mangabeira Unger has more recently attempted to revise classical social theory by exploring how things fit together, rather than to provide an all encompassing single explanation of a universal reality.

Philosopher Martha Nussbaum has argued that something is objectified if any of the following factors is present:

Philosopher David Buller agrees with the general argument that the human mind has evolved over time but disagree with the specific claims evolutionary psychologists make.

The entire quote is as follows: " The essential Saltes of Animals may be so prepared and preserved, that an ingenious Man may have the whole Ark of Noah in his own Studie, and raise the fine Shape of an Animal out of its Ashes at his Pleasure ; and by the lyke Method from the essential Saltes of humane Dust, a Philosopher may, without any criminal Necromancy, call up the Shape of any dead Ancestour from the Dust whereinto his Bodie has been incinerated.

Philosopher Thomas Nagel has supported Sokal and Bricmont, describing their book as consisting largely of " extensive quotations of scientific gibberish from name-brand French intellectuals, together with eerily patient explanations of why it is gibberish ," and agreeing that " there does seem to be something about the Parisian scene that is particularly hospitable to reckless verbosity.

In October 2002, a book on Khushal Khan Khattak, Khushal Khan, The Afghan Warrior Poet and Philosopher, has been published.

This concept has been attributed as far back as the Greek Philosopher Epictetus, who is often cited as utilizing similar ideas in antiquity.

Philosopher John Searle suggests that, despite the " opaque prose " and lofty claims of Giroux, he interprets the goal of Giroux's form of critical pedagogy " to create political radicals ", thus highlighting the contestable and antagonistic moral and political grounds of the ideals of citizenship and " public wisdom "; these varying moral perspectives of what is " right " are to be found in what John Dewey has referred to as the tensions between traditional and progressive education.

From the lonely life he led, and still more from the riddling nature of his philosophy and his contempt for humankind in general, he was called " The Obscure " and the " Weeping Philosopher ".

Yockey called Spengler " The Philosopher of the Twentieth Century.

The Dungeon expansion was released in May 2009 and includes a new region, an L-shaped piece connected to one corner of the board, a new deck of cards called Dungeon cards to be used in the new region, as well as five new characters ( Gladiator, Amazon, Swashbuckler, Gypsy, and Philosopher ).

He complained of this assessment in his " Mathematicall Praeface ": " And for these, and such like marvellous Actes and Feates, Naturally, and Mechanically, wrought and contrived: ought any honest Student and Modest Christian Philosopher, be counted, & called a Conjurer?

Philosopher Karl Popper called the self-fulfilling prophecy the Oedipus effect:

Edward, KG, (; 31 October 1391 – 9 September 1438 ), called the Philosopher or the Eloquent, was King of Portugal and the Algarve and second Lord of Ceuta from 1433 until his death.

From the Angelic Doctor ( the honorary title of St. Aquinas ), he was led to " The Philosopher ", as St. Thomas called Aristotle.

Thus the triad announced both in the Sophist and in the Statesman is completed, though the Philosopher, being divided dialectically into a " Stranger " portion and a " Socrates " portion, isn't called " The Philosopher "— this philosophical crux is left to the reader to determine.

Philosopher and social critic Robert C. Solomon described McKuen's poetry as " sweet kitsch ", and at the height of his popularity in 1969, Newsweek magazine called him " the King of Kitsch ".

After their baptism they were forced to use Roman and Greek letters in the transcription of their Slavic words but these were not suitable ... At last, God, in his love for mankind, sent them St. Constantine the Philosopher, called Cyril, a learned and upright man, who composed for them thirty-eight letters, some ( 24 of them ) similar to the Greek, but some ( 14 of them ) different, suitable to express Slavic sounds.

" Those who hold the viewpoint of the Professional Philosopher would likely answer, " European, Middle Eastern and Asian philosophy alone shall be called philosophy ".

Philosopher Paul Feyerabend called for a " democratization of science.

* Saint Christodulus the Philosopher, called “ the Ossetian ,” of Georgia ( 12th century )

Naturalistic dualism comes from Australian Philosopher, David Chalmers ( born 1966 ) who argues there is an explanatory gap between objective and subjective experience that cannot be bridged by reductionism because consciousness is, at least, logically autonomous of the physical properties upon which it supervenes.

A similar defense comes from Australian Philosopher Frank Jackson ( born 1943 ) who revived the theory of Epiphenomenalism which argues that mental states do not play a role in physical states.

Philosopher Mary Midgley, among others, argues that materialism is a self-refuting idea, at least in its eliminative form.

Philosopher Robert Nozick argues that Rand's foundational argument in ethics is unsound because she does not explain why someone could not rationally prefer dying and having no values.

Philosopher Tom Regan argues that animals have inherent value and moral rights as " subjects-of-a-life.

Philosopher Thomas Baldwin argues that Sartre's argument is based on a misunderstanding of Freud.

Philosopher Peter Hallward argues that they are an aristocratic form of politics.

Philosopher Nayef Al-Rodhan argues that previous concepts of civilizations, such as Samuel P. Huntington's arguments supporting a coming " clash of civilizations ," are misconstrued.

Philosopher Thomas Baldwin argues that Sartre's argument is based on a misunderstanding of Freud.

Philosopher David Ingram argues that " affirming ' black pride ' is not equivalent to affirming ' white pride ,' since the former — unlike the latter — is a defensive strategy aimed at rectifying a negative stereotype ".

Philosopher Mark Alan Walker argues that rational perfectionism is, or should be, the ethical imperative behind transhumanism.

Philosopher Edward Stein argues that Ruse does not succeed in showing that social constructionism is mistaken, calling his discussion of it superficial.

Philosopher Paul Kurtz argues that nature is best accounted for by reference to material principles.

Philosopher George Walsh argues that Christianity can be seen as originating in a myth dressed up as history, or with a historical being mythologized into a supernatural one: he calls the former the Christ myth theory, and the latter the historical Jesus theory.

Philosopher Hilary Putnam provided a modern parallel of Descartes argument in his 1989 discussion of a brain in a vat, where he argues that brains which were directly fed with an input from a computer would not know the deception from reality.