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The DNA of gorillas is highly similar to that of a human, from 95 – 99 % depending on what is counted, and they are the next closest living relatives to humans after the bonobo and common chimpanzee.
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DNA and gorillas
Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4 million years ago, first the gorillas, and then the chimpanzees ( genus Pan ) split off from the line leading to the humans ; human DNA is approximately 98. 4 % identical to that of chimpanzees when comparing single nucleotide polymorphisms ( see human evolutionary genetics ).
The most likely original or ancestral state of a DNA sequence is determined by comparing human DNA sequences with those of a closely related species, usually non-human primates such as chimpanzees and gorillas.
New evidence based on analysis of more than 1, 100 mitochondrial, apicoplastic, and nuclear DNA sequences has suggested that Plasmodium falciparum may in fact have speciated from a lineage present in gorillas.
While preliminary genetic testing with non-nuclear DNA indicates a close relationship with the eastern chimpanzee ( Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii ) subspecies of the common chimpanzee, a range of behaviors that are more closely related to those of gorillas have greatly intrigued primatologists from around the globe.
DNA and is
The order is clearly circumscribed on the basis of DNA sequence analysis, but is difficult to define morphologically, since its members are structurally diverse.
The present understanding of the Apiales is fairly recent and is based upon comparison of DNA sequences by phylogenetic methods.
Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup Y is otherwise found mainly among Nivkhs, and with lower frequency among Tungusic peoples, Koreans, Mongols ( including Kalmyks and Buryats ), Chinese, Japanese, Central Asians, South Siberian Turkic peoples ( e. g. Tuvans, Todjins, Soyots ), Koryaks, Alyutors, Itelmens, Taiwanese aborigines, Filipinos, Indonesians, and Malaysians.
It is now known that each of the A, B, and O alleles is actually a class of multiple alleles with different DNA sequences that produce proteins with identical properties: more than 70 alleles are known at the ABO locus.
An autoantigen is usually a normal protein or complex of proteins ( and sometimes DNA or RNA ) that is recognized by the immune system of patients suffering from a specific autoimmune disease.
# The nuclear envelope becomes discontinuous and the DNA inside it is fragmented in a process referred to as karyorrhexis.
The tumor-suppressor protein p53 accumulates when DNA is damaged due to a chain of biochemical factors.
In this microstructure of DNA is a pair of biopolymers, Polynucleotide s, forming the double helix found in DNA
Despite the study of model plants and increasing use of DNA evidence, there is ongoing work and discussion among taxonomists about how best to classify plants into various taxa.
While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms, molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent revisions along more efficient, evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so.
Bioinformatics is a branch of biological science which deals with the study of methods for storing, retrieving and analyzing biological data, such as nucleic acid ( DNA / RNA ) and protein sequence, structure, function, pathways and genetic interactions.
In the context of genomics, annotation is the process of marking the genes and other biological features in a DNA sequence.
In molecular biology and genetics, the linking between two nitrogenous bases on opposite complementary DNA or certain types of RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds is called a base pair ( often abbreviated bp ).
The size of an individual gene or an organism's entire genome is often measured in base pairs because DNA is usually double-stranded.
A kilobase ( kb ) is a unit of measurement in molecular biology equal to 1000 base pairs of DNA or RNA.
DNA with high GC-content is more stable than DNA with low GC-content, but, contrary to popular belief, the hydrogen bonds do not stabilize the DNA significantly, and stabilization is mainly due to stacking interactions.
DNA and highly
" Ene-diynes undergo rearrangement via the Bergman cyclization, generating highly reactive radical intermediates that attack DNA within the tumor.
All known forms of life are based on the same fundamental biochemical organisation: genetic information encoded in DNA, transcribed into RNA, through the effect of protein-and RNA-enzymes, then translated into proteins by ( highly similar ) ribosomes, with ATP, NADH and others as energy sources, etc.
Current research has established that humans are genetically highly homogenous ; that is, the DNA of individuals is more alike than usual for most species, which may have resulted from their relatively recent evolution or the possibility of a population bottleneck resulting from cataclysmic natural events such as the Toba catastrophe.
In biology, histones are highly alkaline proteins found in eukaryotic cell nuclei that package and order the DNA into structural units called nucleosomes.
While this state is highly stable, it can switch to the lytic pathway in the process of prophage induction, which occurs when the host SOS response is triggered by DNA damage.
Ionizing radiations may produce highly reactive free radicals that can break the bonds in the DNA.
Oxidative stress may also generate highly reactive oxygen species that can damage the DNA.
In contrast, single-stranded RNA and DNA molecules are not constrained to a regular double helix, and can adopt highly complex three-dimensional structures that are based on short stretches of intramolecular base-paired sequences that include both Watson-Crick and noncanonical base pairs, as well as a wide range of complex tertiary interactions.
Due to the highly basic charge of all four core histones, the histone octamer is stable only in the presence of DNA or very high salt concentrations.
Compared to mitotic chromosomes in somatic cells, sperm DNA is at least sixfold more highly condensed.
A probe that hybridizes only to a single DNA segment that has not been cut by the restriction enzyme will produce a single band on a Southern blot, whereas multiple bands will likely be observed when the probe hybridizes to several highly similar sequences ( e. g., those that may be the result of sequence duplication ).
Electroporation allows cellular introduction of large highly charged molecules such as DNA which would never passively diffuse across the hydrophobic bilayer core.
If the DNA was resolved by gel electrophoresis, the DNA can be visualized either by silver staining ( low sensitivity, safe, inexpensive ), or an intercalating dye such as ethidium bromide ( fairly sensitive, moderate health risks, inexpensive ), or as most modern forensics labs use, fluorescent dyes ( highly sensitive, safe, expensive ).
Many noncoding DNA sequences have important biological functions as indicated by comparative genomics studies that report some regions of noncoding DNA that are highly conserved, sometimes on time-scales representing hundreds of millions of years, implying that these noncoding regions are under strong evolutionary pressure and positive selection.
DNA profiling uses repetitive (" repeat ") sequences that are highly variable, called variable number tandem repeats ( VNTRs ), particularly short tandem repeats ( STRs ).
This method uses highly polymorphic regions that have short repeated sequences of DNA ( the most common is 4 bases repeated, but there are other lengths in use, including 3 and 5 bases ).
DNA profiling based on typing individual highly variable minisatellites in the human genome was also developed by Alec Jeffreys and his team in 1985, with the term DNA fingerprinting being retained for the initial test that types many minisatellites simultaneously.
By focussing on just a few of these highly variable minisatellites, DNA profiling made the system more sensitive, more reproducible, and amenable to computer databasing, and soon became the standard forensic DNA system used in criminal case work and paternity testing worldwide.
With highly automated and sophisticated equipment, modern-day DNA profiling can process hundreds of samples each day.
Although the replication and transcription of DNA is highly standardized in eukaryotes, the same cannot be said for their karotypes, which are highly variable between species in chromosome number and in detailed organization despite being constructed out of the same macromolecules.
DNA and similar
DNA evidence suggests the bonobo and common chimpanzee species separated from each other less than one million years ago ( similar in relation between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals ).
The polymerases from the archaea are similar to family B DNA Pols.
This primase is structurally similar to many viral RNA dependent RNA polymerases, reverse transcriptases, cyclic nucleotide generating cyclases and DNA polymerases of the A / B / Y families that are involved in DNA replication and repair.
The significance of these ratios for the structure of DNA were not recognized until Watson, persisting in building structural models, realized that A: T and C: G pairs are structurally similar.
Hash functions are mostly used to accelerate table lookup or data comparison tasks such as finding items in a database, detecting duplicated or similar records in a large file, finding similar stretches in DNA sequences, and so on.
A recent study compared DNA samples taken from specimens of both Ivory-billed birds along with the Imperial Woodpecker, a larger but otherwise very similar bird.
Q is similar to N in its effect: Q binds to RNA polymerase in Qut sites and the resulting complex can ignore terminators, however the mechanism is very different ; the Q protein first associates with a DNA sequence rather than an mRNA sequence.
However, a similar " sexual " process, known as bacterial transformation, involves transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another and recombination of these DNA molecules of different parental origin.
The circular structure is also found in prokaryotes, and the similarity is extended by the fact that mitochondrial DNA is organized with a variant genetic code similar to that of Proteobacteria.
The ribosomes coded for by the mitochondrial DNA are similar to those from bacteria in size and structure.
The final quarter of the 20th century saw the development of molecular phylogenetics, which investigates how closely organisms are related by measuring how similar the DNA is in their genomes.
Primer sequences need to be chosen to uniquely select for a region of DNA, avoiding the possibility of mishybridization to a similar sequence nearby.
These experiences may be summed in some sense but can only approximately be shared, even among very similar cognitions with identical DNA.
The general RNA structure is very similar to the DNA structure, but in RNA the nucleotide uracil takes the place that thymine occupies in DNA.
The chemical structure of RNA is very similar to that of DNA, with two differences:
Double-stranded RNA ( dsRNA ) is RNA with two complementary strands, similar to the DNA found in all cells.
RNA is a very similar molecule to DNA, and only has two chemical differences.
The overall structure of RNA and DNA are immensely similar — one strand of DNA and one of RNA can bind to form a double helical structure.
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