On the other hand, the Phagspa script of the Mongol Empire was based closely on the Tibetan abugida, but all vowel marks were written after the preceding consonant rather than as diacritic marks.

In 1264, Nivkh people reported to the Yuan Dynasty of the Mongol Empire that Ainu invaded the land of Nivkh, resulting in battles between Ainu and the Yuan Dynasty.

On many occasions the Chinese studied nomadic cavalry tactics and applied the lessons in creating their own potent cavalry forces, while in others they simply recruited the tribal horsemen wholesale into their armies ; and in yet other cases nomadic empires proved eager to enlist Chinese infantry and engineering, as in the case of the Mongol Empire and its sinicized part, the Yuan Dynasty ( 1279 – 1368 ).

In 1258, when both North China and the Islamic world were part of the Mongol Empire, Hulagu Khan established an observatory in Maragheh for the astronomer Nasir al-Din al-Tusi at which a few Chinese astronomers were present, resulting in the Chinese-Uighur calendar that al-Tusi describes in his Zij-i Ilkhani.

The title Khagan ( khan of khans or grand khan ) was held by Genghis Khan, founder of the Mongol Empire in 1206.

Territorial empires ( e. g. the Mongol Empire, the Median Empire ) tended to be contiguous areas.

* 1249 – Andrew of Longjumeau is dispatched by Louis IX of France as his ambassador to meet with Mongol Khagan of the Mongol Empire.

Eastern Europe in the High Middle Ages was dominated by the rise, and later fall, of the Mongol Empire.

In the later Middle Ages, destructive Mongol invasions from the East, and the loss of population in the Black Death, greatly weakened the traditional centre of the Islamic world, stretching from Persia to Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire was able to conquer most Arabic-speaking areas, creating an Islamic world power again, although one that was unable to master the challenges of the Early Modern period.

All the major cities and towns became part of the massive Mongol Empire,

1: Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire.

Imperialism was a basic component to the conquests of Genghis Khan during the Mongol Empire, and other war-lords.

In the 13th c. Kazakhstan fell into a dominion of the Mongol Empire, and remained in the sphere of the Mongol successor states till the New Time.

After the Mongol capture of the Kara-Khitan, Kazakhstan fell under the control of a succession of rulers of the Mongolian Golden Horde, the western branch of the Mongol Empire.

With the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, the Kyrgyz migrated south.

With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongols settled over almost all Eurasia and carried on military campaigns from the Adriatic Sea to Java and from Japan to Palestine.

The Mongol Empire was known for its religious tolerance, but had a special leaning towards Buddhism and was sympathetic towards Christianity.

This map shows the boundary of 13th century Mongol Empire and location of today's Mongols in modern Mongolia, Russia, Central Asia n States and People's Republic of China | China.

* 1260 – Kublai Khan becomes ruler of the Mongol Empire.

The country had also undergone incursions by the Mongol Empire.

By 1279, the Mongols conquered the Song Dynasty and brought all of China under control of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty.

* Volga Bulgaria is conquered by Mongol khan Batu.

And even during the reign of the Mongol Empire, people in the conquered areas often wrote it in their local systems.

After Genghis Khan unified the Mongol tribes in 1206 and founded the Mongol Empire, the Tangut Western Xia empire was ultimately conquered in 1227, and the Jurchen Jin Dynasty fell in 1234.

Under the leadership of Ögedei Khan ( r. 1229 – 1241 ), both the Jin Dynasty and Western Xia Dynasty were conquered by Mongol forces.

Genghis Khan conquered the Merkits and Tatars who were settling in the area by 1227, before going on to expand into wider Central Asia, establishing the Mongol Empire.

He led a military campaign north and conquered the Yuan Dynasty's capital of Khanbaliq and ended Mongol rule in China.

The kingdom was conquered by the Mongol Empire in 1253, with its former dynasty of the Duans incorporated into the Mongol dominion as governors general of the new province.

From the late Ming to 1724, a big part of the area that is now Qinghai was under Khoshut Mongol control, but in that year it was conquered by the armies of the Qing Dynasty.

It then came under Mongol domination after Genghis Khan conquered Yinchuan in the early 13th century.

Beginning in the late 1620s, Nurhaci's successors incorporated allied and conquered Mongol tribes into the Eight Banner system.

Meanwhile, in an offensive action against the Song Dynasty, Mongol armies captured Siyang-yang, the Yangtze and Sichuan, but did not secure their control over the conquered sites.

Kublai conquered the Dali Kingdom in 1253, and Mongke's general Qoridai stabilized his control over Tibet, inducing leading monasteries to submit to Mongol rule.

By 1206, Genghis Khan had conquered all Mongol and Turkic tribes in Mongolia and southern Siberia.

However, they were the main armament of the Mongol armies that conquered much of Asia and Europe ; their short profile compared to longer bows made them ideal for horseback use.

Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü, Hulegu ( Mongolian:, " Warrior "; Mongolian Cyrillic: ; Turkish: ; Chagatai / Urdu: Hulaku ; Persian /; ; 8 February 1265 ), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Southwest Asia.

He departed with the bulk of his forces, leaving only about 10, 000 Mongol horsemen in Syria under Kitbuqa to occupy the conquered territory.

After being conquered by the Mongol Empire, the principality became a self-governed state headed by its own nobility.

Zulju, who was probably a Mongol from Turkistan, wreaked devastation in 1320, when he commanded a force that conquered many regions of the Kashmir Valley.

North China was lost to the Jurchens in 1141, and the Mongol Empire conquered all of China in 1279, as well as almost all of Eurasia's landmass, missing only central and western Europe, and most of Southeast Asia and Japan.

The Ottoman sultan Beyazid I conquered the province in 1392 however, following his capture and death in Battle of Ankara, the area was granted back to the Çandaroğlu by the Mongol warlord Timur Lenk.

Originating in the Kimek Khanate, they conquered large parts of the Eurasian steppe during the Turkic expansion of the 11th to 12th centuries together with the Cumans, and were in turn conquered by the Mongol invasions of the early 13th century.