The luminous gain of a single stage with Af ( flux gain ) is, to a first approximation, given by the product of the photocathode sensitivity S ( amp / lumen ), the anode potential V ( volts ), and the phosphor conversion efficiency P ( lumen/watt ).

At the anode, anions ( negative ions ) are forced by the electrical potential to react chemically and give off electrons ( oxidation ) which then flow up and into the driving circuit.

Internally the positively charged cations are flowing away from the anode ( even though it is negative and therefore would be expected to attract them, this is due to electrode potential relative to the electrolyte solution being different for the anode and cathode metal / electrolyte systems ); but, external to the cell in the circuit, electrons are being pushed out through the negative contact and thus through the circuit by the voltage potential as would be expected.

The terms anode and cathode should not be applied to a Zener diode, since it allows flow in either direction, depending on the polarity of the applied potential ( i. e. voltage ).

B is a high voltage power supply to energize the anode P. Shadow mask M is connected to the cathode potential and its image is seen on the phosphor as a non-glowing area.

In the early cold cathode vacuum tubes, called Crookes tubes, this was done by using a high electrical potential between the anode and the cathode to ionize the residual gas in the tube ; the ions were accelerated by the electric field and released electrons when they collided with the cathode.

The cathode supplies electrons to the positively charged cations which flow to it from the electrolyte ( even if the cell is galvanic, i. e., when the cathode is positive and therefore would be expected to repel the positively charged cations ; this is due to electrode potential relative to the electrolyte solution being different for the anode and cathode metal / electrolyte systems in a galvanic cell ).

A voltmeter is capable of measuring the change of electrical potential between the anode and the cathode.

which is shown as reduction but, in fact, the SHE can act as either the anode or the cathode, depending on the relative oxidation / reduction potential of the other electrode / electrolyte combination.

If the electrode has a positive potential with respect to the SHE, then that means it is a strongly reducing electrode which forces the SHE to be the anode ( an example is Cu in aqueous CuSO < sub > 4 </ sub > with a standard electrode potential of 0. 337 V ).

The cell potential is then calculated as the sum of the reduction potential for the cathode and the oxidation potential for the anode.

One such challenge is the potential for carbon dust to build up on the anode, which slows down the internal reforming process.

An electric potential between 150 and 800 volts is applied between the anode and cathode.

The polarization is caused by the current flow from the anode to the cathode, driven by the difference in electrochemical potential between the anode and the cathode.

The difference in potential between the two metals means that the galvanic anode corrodes, so that the anode material is consumed in preference to the structure.

Since the operation of a galvanic anode relies on the difference in electropotential between the anode and the cathode, practically any metal can be used to protect some other, providing there is a sufficient difference in potential.

In a triode radio-frequency ( RF ) amplifier, if both the plate ( anode ) and grid are connected to resonant circuits tuned to the same frequency, stray capacitive coupling between the grid and the plate will cause the amplifier to go into oscillation if the stage gain is much more than unity.

Close to the anode the electrons gain sufficient energy to ionize additional gas molecules, create a large number of electron avalanches which spread along the anode and effectively through the complete gas fill of the tube.

This shields the grid from the anode, reducing Miller capacitance between those two electrodes to a very low level and improving the tube's gain at high frequencies.

The triode vacuum tube also develops a " space charge " between the cathode and control grid, which reduces its gain, especially at low anode voltages.

Some instruments that use photomultipliers have provisions to vary the anode voltage to control the gain of the system.

The basis for an electrochemical cell such as the galvanic cell is always a redox reaction which can be broken down into two half-reactions: oxidation at anode ( loss of electron ) and reduction at cathode ( gain of electron ).

A: Separator, B: zinc powder anode and electrolyte, C: anode can, D: insulator gasket, E: cathode can, F: air hole, G: cathode catalyst and current collector, H: air distribution layer, I: Semi permeable membrane

The circuit contains: a triode, a resistor R, a capacitor C, a coupled inductor-set with self inductance L and mutual inductance M. In the serial RLC circuit there is a current i, and towards the triode anode (" plate ") a current i < sub > a </ sub >, while there is a voltage u < sub > g </ sub > on the triode control grid.

* Tkachuk, A, Duewer, F, Cui, H, Feser, M, Wang, S and Yun, W ( 2007 ) " X-ray computed tomography in Zernike phase contrast mode at 8 keV with 50-nm resolution using Cu rotation anode X-ray source ", Z. Kristallogr.

Experiments were made on an electric arc applying a porous graphite anode cooled by a transpiring gas ( Argon ).

Thus, the energy transferred from the arc to the anode was partly fed back into the arc.

It was shown that by proper anode design the net energy loss of the arc to the anode could be reduced to approximately 15% of the total arc energy.

A detailed energy balance of the anode was established.

The anode ablation could be reduced to a negligible amount.

The cooling requirements are particularly severe at the anode.

In free-burning electric arcs, for instance, approximately 90% of the total arc power is transferred to the anode giving rise to local heat fluxes in excess of Af as measured by the authors -- the exact value depending on the arc atmosphere.

In plasma generators as currently commercially available for industrial use or as high temperature research tools often more than 50% of the total energy input is being transferred to the cooling medium of the anode.

The higher heat transfer rates at the anode compared with those at the cathode can be explained by the physical phenomena occurring in free burning arcs.

The heat transfer to the anode is due to the following effects: 1.

Heat of condensation ( work function ) plus kinetic energy of the electrons impinging on the anode.

This energy transfer depends on the current, the temperature in the arc column, the anode material, and the conditions in the anode sheath.

The heat transfer to the anode in free burning arcs is enhanced by a hot gas jet flowing from the cathode towards the anode with velocities up Af.

The pressure gradient producing the jet is due to the nature of the magnetic field in the arc ( rapid decrease of current density from cathode to the anode ).

Hence, the flow conditions at the anode of free burning arcs resemble those near a stagnation point.

It is apparent from the above and from experimental evidence that the cooling requirements for the anode of free burning arcs are large compared with those for the cathode.

however, the anode is still the part receiving the largest heat flux.

An attempt to improve the life of the anodes or the efficiency of the plasma generators must, therefore, aim at a reduction of the anode loss.

The use of high voltages and low currents by proper design to reduce electron heat transfer to the anode for a given power output.

Continuous motion of the arc contact area at the anode by flow or magnetic forces.

Feedback of the energy transferred to the anode by applying gas transpiration through the anode.