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The concept that underlies social capital has a much longer history ; thinkers exploring the relation between associational life and democracy were using similar concepts regularly by the 19th century, drawing on the work of earlier writers such as James Madison ( The Federalist Papers ) and Alexis de Tocqueville ( Democracy in America ) to integrate concepts of social cohesion and connectedness into the pluralist tradition in American political science.
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concept and underlies
Thus, it is this semi-empirical formula for bond energy that underlies Pauling electronegativity concept.
This work underlies the concept of electronegativity equalization, which suggests that electrons distribute themselves around a molecule to minimize or to equalize the Mulliken electronegativity.
The concept, idea or philosophy of property underlies all property law.
Employing the properties of electrical switches to process logic is the basic concept that underlies all modern electronic digital computers.
While some have argued that beliefs are represented in the mind as sentence-like constructs, others have gone as far as arguing that there is no consistent or coherent mental representation that underlies our common use of the belief concept and that it is therefore obsolete and should be rejected.
More important influences include Hegel, whose concept of the dialectic underlies the tripartite division of art into the Apollonian, its Dionysian antithesis, and their synthesis in Greek tragedy.
A similar concept underlies the reverse Polish notation ( RPN, a postfix notation ) of the Friden EC-130 calculator and its successors, many Hewlett Packard calculators, the Forth programming language, or the PostScript page description language.
" Donald McGavran, a missionary in India who " coined the concept of ' people movements ' to Christ ," is credited as an early proponent of the kind of missionary work that underlies the Church Planting Movement, by focusing his missionary work on converting groups of people (" groups, tribes, villages, ethnic groups ") rather than individuals.
It is, however, argued by some scholars of social movements, that a new concept of justice, alongside some old notions, underlies many critical ideas and practices developed in this movement.
The concept of insurable risk underlies nearly all insurance decisions.
Another key concept that underlies modern business is ethical egoism.
This notion underlies the concept of mutually-beneficial trade where it is held that both sides tend to benefit by an exchange.
These exercises involve the stretch-shorten concept that underlies the shock method.
As such it is a key concept in evolution and development, and underlies concepts such as resilience or developmental stability — the ability to maintain a normal developmental course under stress.
concept and social
Recognizing that the Rule of Law is `` a dynamic concept which should be employed not only to safeguard the civil and political rights of the individual in a free society '', the Congress asserted that it also included the responsibility `` to establish social, economic, educational and cultural conditions under which his legitimate aspirations and dignity may be realized ''.
The most fundamental concept of the new approach to economic aid is the focusing of our attention, our resources, and our energies on the effort to promote the economic and social development of the less developed countries.
In the 1960s, Robert Mandrou and Georges Duby harmonized the concept of mentalité history with Fernand Braudel's structures of historical time and linked mentalities with changing social conditions.
Theodism is focused on the lore, beliefs and social structure-particularly the concept of thew ( Old English þeaw ) or " customary law "-of various specific Germanic tribes.
Parallel with the rise of cultural anthropology in the United States, social anthropology, in which sociality is the central concept and which focuses on the study of social statuses and roles, groups, institutions, and the relations among them, developed as an academic discipline in Britain.
Complications occurs for terms such as UFO, which literally means " unidentified flying object " but connotes alien spacecraft, a concept also associated with some conspiracy theories, and thus possessing a certain social stigma.
This approach considers the complex realities surrounding the concept of crime and seeks to understand how changing social, political, psychological, and economic conditions may affect changing definitions of crime and the form of the legal, law-enforcement, and penal responses made by society.
American media critic Herbert Schiller wrote: " The concept of cultural imperialism today best describes the sum of the processes by which a society is brought into the modern world system and how its dominating stratum is attracted, pressured, forced, and sometimes bribed into shaping social institutions to correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominating centre of the system.
A concept is a system of general ideas targeting the multilateral treatment / interpretation of economic, social, legal, scientific, technical and other problems, and reflecting the manner of perception or the multitude of opinions, ideas regarding problems associated with to the development of one or several fields or sectors as a whole.
Another important source was Lucien Séve's theory of personality, which provided the concept of " social activity matrices " as mediating structure between individual and social reproduction.
One core result of Holzkamp's historical and comparative analysis of human reproductive action, perception and cognition is a very specific concept of meaning that identifies symbolic meaning as historically and culturally constructed, purposeful conceptual structures that humans create in close relationship to material culture and within the context of historically specific formations of social reproduction.
Michel Foucault's concept of discourse is closely related to social rules as it offers a possible explanation how these rules are shaped and change.
Elaborating on Vygotsky's theory, Jerome Bruner and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of instructional scaffolding, in which the social or information environment offers supports for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized.
In Germany, the Nazis used social Darwinism to promote their racialist concept of the German nation as part of the Aryan race and the need for the Aryan race to be victorious in what the Nazis believed was a race struggle — an ongoing competition and conflict between races.
Rimlinger, one cannot speak of “ fascist social policy ” as a single concept with logical and internally consistent ideas and common identifiable goals.
The concept can also include freedom from " internal " constraints on political action or speech ( e. g. social conformity, consistency, or " inauthentic " behaviour.
" In feminist theory the concept of patriarchy often includes all the social mechanisms that reproduce and exert male dominance over women.
In an ideological context, a grokked concept becomes part of the person who contributes to its evolution by improving the doctrine, perpetuating the myth, espousing the belief, adding detail to the social plan, refining the idea or proving the theory.
Erhard followed the concept of a social market economy, and was in close touch with professional economists.
In the hacker viewpoint, any system could benefit from an easy flow of information, a concept known as transparency in the social sciences.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau would argue, however, that his concept of " general will " in the " social contract " is not the simple collection of individual wills and precisely furthers the interests of the individual ( the constraint of law itself would be beneficial for the individual, as the lack of respect for the law necessarily entails, in Rousseau's eyes, a form of ignorance and submission to one's passions instead of the preferred autonomy of reason ).
The concept may be understood as social welfare as well.
Marx uses the concept of " socially necessary abstract labor-time " to introduce a social perspective distinct from his predecessors and neoclassical economics.
concept and capital
The concept of diplomatic immunity can be found in ancient Indian epics like Ramayana ( between 500 and 301 BC ) and Mahabharata ( around 4th century BC ) where messengers and diplomats were given immunity from capital punishment.
The main concept, however, common to all idealist epistemologies is the centrality of Reason: ( i. e.: ' Reason ' with a capital ' R '): a priori Reason: Knowledge can only be, ultimately, a product of the mind and is therefore, by definition, ' ideal '.
Labor which is highly skilled on the other hand owes part of its produce to an " investment " made in training and is almost like capital ( hence the modern concept of human capital ).
Other writers ( including Joseph Schumpeter ) have traced back the concept even further to Ibn Khaldun, who in his Muqaddimah ( 1377 ), described labor as the source of value, necessary for all earnings and capital accumulation, obvious in the case of craft.
There are theories which have developed a concept called human capital ( referring to the skills that workers possess, not necessarily their actual work ), although there are also counter posing macro-economic system theories that think human capital is a contradiction in terms.
The concept of real property eventually comes to encompass effectively all forms of tangible fixed capital.
By 1482 Venice was the printing capital of the world, and the leading printer was Aldus Manutius, who invented the concept of paperback books that could be carried in a saddlebag.
Earth-based mass drivers for propelling vehicles to orbit, such as the StarTram concept, would require large capital investment.
The concept of natural capital implies that the savings rate of an economy is an imperfect measure of what the country is actually saving, because it measures only investment in man-made capital.
In defining the concept, Hanifan contrasts social capital with material goods by defining it as:
In the words of Stein ( 1960: 1 ): “ The price for maintaining a society that encourages cultural differentiation and experimentation is unquestionably the acceptance of a certain amount of disorganization on both the individual and social level .” All these reflections contributed remarkably to the development of the social capital concept in the following decades.
Robert Putnam has used the concept in a much more positive light: though he was at first careful to argue that social capital was a neutral term, stating “ whether or not shared are praiseworthy is, of course, entirely another matter ”, his work on American society tends to frame social capital as a producer of " civic engagement " and also a broad societal measure of communal health.
" His treatment of the concept is instrumental, focusing on the advantages to possessors of social capital and the “ deliberate construction of sociability for the purpose of creating this resource .”
Nan Lin's concept of social capital has a more individualistic approach: " Investment in social relations with expected returns in the marketplace.
The modern emergence of social capital concept renewed the academic interest for an old debate in social science: the relationship between trust, social networks and the development of modern industrial society.
Through the social capital concept researchers have tried to propose a synthesis between the value contained in the communitarian approaches and individualism professed by the ' rational choice theory.
In this respect, it is similar to the now well-established economic concept of human capital.
Putnam speaks of two main components of the concept: bonding social capital and bridging social capital, the creation of which Putnam credits to Ross Gittel and Avis Vidal.
The concept of social capital in a Chinese social context has been closely linked with the concept of guanxi.
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