* MAG / ER-a Magnetometer and electron reflectometer

Measurements with the electron reflectometer instrument on board the Lunar Prospector showed that this crater is one of a number of impact sites that show demagnetization.

These satellites were to be used to measure electron density over time, and include a magnetometer, as well as a means for measuring ambient radio noise.

The 14 instruments carried on Nozomi are an imaging camera, neutral mass spectrometer, dust counter, thermal plasma analyzer, magnetometer, electron and ion spectrum analyzers, ion mass spectrograph, high energy particles experiment, VUV imaging spectrometer, sounder and plasma wave detector, LF wave analyzer, electron temperature probe, and a UV scanner.

During the period from 1 July 1960 through 31 January 1961, additional research affiliations were effected with the U. S. Army Medical Research and Development Command to conduct research in procedures for quantitative electron microscopy, and for the study of biophysical and biological studies of the structure and function of ocular tissue.

The physicist J. J. Thomson, through his work on cathode rays in 1897, discovered the electron, and concluded that they were a component of every atom.

Groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of electron shells about the nucleus.

As far as atoms and their electron shells were concerned, not only did this yield a better overall description, i. e. the atomic orbital model, but it also provided a new theoretical basis for chemistry

With J. J. Thomson's discovery of the electron in 1897, it became clear that atoms were not the smallest building blocks of nature, but were rather composite particles.

These orbits were stabilized in the model by the fact that when an electron moved farther from the center of the positive cloud, it felt a larger net positive inward force, because there was more material of opposite charge, inside its orbit ( see Gauss's law ).

Wedge-shaped polycrystals were identified by transmission electron microscopy to grow out of the amorphous phase only after the latter has exceeded a certain thickness, the precise value of which depends on deposition temperature, background pressure and various other process parameters.

In this paper, elaborating on the works of Lewis, and the valence bond theory ( VB ) of Heitler and London, and his own earlier works, Pauling presented six rules for the shared electron bond, the first three of which were already generally known:

In 1964, Hückel method calculations ( using a simple linear combination of atomic orbitals ( LCAO ) method for the determination of electron energies of molecular orbitals of π electrons in conjugated hydrocarbon systems ) of molecules ranging in complexity from butadiene and benzene to ovalene, were generated on computers at Berkeley and Oxford.

In 1897 British physicist J. J. Thomson showed the rays were composed of a previously unknown negatively charged particle, which was later named the electron.

Therefore they were not atoms, but a new particle, the first subatomic particle to be discovered, which he originally called " corpuscle " but was later named electron, after particles postulated by George Johnstone Stoney in 1874.

In 1999, objects large enough to be seen under an electron microscope — buckyball molecules ( diameter about 0. 7 nm, nearly half a million times larger than a proton ) — were found to exhibit wave-like interference .< ref > Nature: Wave – particle duality of C < sub > 60 </ sub > molecules, 14 October 1999.

These large-scale technological program demonstrations were joined by integrated circuit research, which resulted in submicrometre electronic technology and electron devices that evolved into the Very Large Scale Integration ( VLSI ) Program and the Congressionally mandated charged particle beam program.

The word electricity is from the New Latin ēlectricus, " amber-like ", coined in the year 1600 from the Greek ήλεκτρον ( electron ) meaning amber, because electrical effects were produced classically by rubbing amber.

Coated pits and vesicles were first seen in thin sections of tissue in the electron microscope by Matt Lions and Parker George.

Early structural models for GPCRs were based on their weak analogy to bacteriorhodopsin, for which a structure had been determined by both electron diffraction (, ) and X ray-based crystallography ().

These electron pulses were counted, and these count numbers constituted the data that were sent to Earth.

His measurements of the tiny effect produced in the apparatus he used were an experimental tour de force, accomplished 18 years before the electron was discovered.

Inside the evacuated tube, electrons were fired at a metallic substance ( i. e. a sample of pure element in Moseley's work ), causing the ionization of electrons from the inner electron shells of the element.

In electronics, magnetic core memory, radar, single electron transistors, and inertial guidance controls were invented or substantially developed by MIT researchers.

In contrast to Niels Bohr, who proposed a statistical version of the conservation laws to explain the phenomenon, Pauli hypothesized an undetected particle that he called a " neutron " in keeping with convention employed for naming both the proton and the electron, which in 1930 were known to be respective products for alpha and beta decay.

J. Thomson ( 1856-1940 ): showed in 1897 that cathode rays were composed of a previously unknown negatively charged particle ( later named the electron ), discovered isotopes, invented the mass spectrometer, awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of the electron and for his work on the conduction of electricity in gases.

A video illustrating a typical practical magnification range of a scanning electron microscope designed for biological specimens.

There are a number of electron microscopes that have been specifically designed for use in Auger spectroscopy ; these are termed scanning Auger microscopes ( SAM ) and can produce high resolution, spatially resolved chemical images.

These instruments are designed as if to be specifically used in combined scanning electron microscopes ( SEMs ).

In 1978, Thomas and Christoph Cremer designed a laser scanning process, which scans the three dimensional surface of an object point-by-point by means of a focused laser beam, and creates the over-all picture by electronic means similar to those used in scanning electron microscopes.

XPS can be performed using either a commercially built XPS system, a privately built XPS system or a synchrotron-based light source combined with a custom designed electron analyzer.

The 10, 000-ft2 Nanofabrication Research Laboratory, housed in a one-level wing of the building, includes clean rooms and an area designed to meet the requirements of electron beam imaging and writing instruments ( low electromagnetic field, low vibration, low acoustic noise ).

Up to nowadays uncountable number of various types of electron beam equipments have been designed and realized.

The electron beam generators ( electron guns ) designed for welding applications can supply beams with power ranging from a few watts up to about one hundred kilowatts.

Since the beginning of electron beam welding in industrial scale ( end of 1950s ) a countless number of electron beam welders with working vacuum chambers volume ranging from a few liters up to hundreds cubic meters, provided with electron guns with the power up to 100 kW have been designed and are used world wide.

It is designed to study the luminescence characteristics of polished thin sections of solids irradiated by an electron beam.

In 1963, G. F. Rempfer designed the electron optics for an early ultrahigh-vacuum ( UHV ) PEEM.

In this method named cold electron ionization ( Cold-EI ) the molecules exit the GC column, mixed with added helium make up gas and expand into vacuum through a specially designed supersonic nozzle, forming a supersonic molecular beam ( SMB ).

Experiments using electron beams designed to disrupt large molecules have been performed to investigate the size of the agent show that it is very small: much smaller than the smallest known virus.

Systems of electrostatic lenses can be designed in the same way as optical lenses, so electrostatic lenses easily magnify or converge the electron trajectories.

To improve electron transport in these solar cells, while maintaining the high surface area needed for dye adsorption, two researchers have designed alternate semiconductor morphologies, such as arrays of nanowires and a combination of nanowires and nanoparticles, to provide a direct path to the electrode via the semiconductor conduction band.

He designed and built the first electron beam welder.

Instruments that are specifically designed for phase-contrast imaging are often called HRTEMs ( high resolution transmission electron microscopes ), and differ from analytical TEMs mainly in the design of the electron beam column.