Radiopasteurization by either the electron accelerator or cesium-137 source is in the range of freezing costs.

Irradiation using the nuclide source is more expensive than use of an electron accelerator.

The cathode ray tube ( CRT ) is a vacuum tube containing an electron gun ( a source of electrons or electron emitter ) and a fluorescent screen used to view images.

Most radios and television sets prior to the 1970s used filament-heated-cathode electron tubes for signal selection and processing ; to this day, a hot cathode forms the source of the electron beam ( s ) in cathode ray tubes in many television sets and computer monitors.

Hot electron emitters are also used as the electrodes in fluorescent lamps and in the source tubes of X-ray machines.

The electrons are emitted by an electron gun, commonly fitted with a tungsten filament cathode as the electron source.

We have a source that emits electron – positron pairs, with the electron sent to destination A, where there is an observer named Alice, and the positron sent to destination B, where there is an observer named Bob.

The FET controls the flow of electrons ( or electron holes ) from the source to drain by affecting the size and shape of a " conductive channel " created and influenced by voltage ( or lack of voltage ) applied across the gate and source terminals.

The spin of the electrons in atoms is the main source of ferromagnetism, although there is also a contribution from the orbital angular momentum of the electron about the nucleus.

The citric acid cycle oxidizes the acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide, and, in the process, produces reduced cofactors ( three molecules of NADH and one molecule of FADH < sub > 2 </ sub >) that are a source of electrons for the electron transport chain, and a molecule of GTP ( that is readily converted to an ATP ).

It is derived from the Greek piezo or piezein ( πιέζειν ), which means to squeeze or press, and electric or electron (), which stands for amber, an ancient source of electric charge.

Since the electron is moving at a certain temperature ( Plank spectrum ) this noise source cannot be further eroded.

This is the source of the copious amount of electron antineutrinos produced by fission reactors.

MTT promises a highly spin-polarized electron source at room temperature.

XPS can be performed using either a commercially built XPS system, a privately built XPS system or a synchrotron-based light source combined with a custom designed electron analyzer.

Following removal of an inner electron by an energetic photon provided by a primary radiation source, an electron from an outer shell drops into its place.

The technique is able to take advantage of modern aberration-corrected probe forming systems to attain spatial resolutions down to ~ 0. 1 nm, while with a monochromated electron source and / or careful deconvolution the energy resolution can be 100 meV or better.

A separate electron source is required to keep the spacecraft electrically neutral.

The most obvious source of line broadening is non-uniformities in the magnetic field ; as an electron passes

During the period from 1 July 1960 through 31 January 1961, additional research affiliations were effected with the U. S. Army Medical Research and Development Command to conduct research in procedures for quantitative electron microscopy, and for the study of biophysical and biological studies of the structure and function of ocular tissue.

In addition to the basic programs in wavelength standards, spectroscopy, solid state physics, interactions of the free electron and atomic constants which are necessary to provide the foundation for technological progress, the Bureau has strengthened its activities in laboratory astrophysics.

The use of high voltages and low currents by proper design to reduce electron heat transfer to the anode for a given power output.

for example, gamma rays give deeper penetration but cannot be focused or collimated, whereas unidirectional electron beams may be split and directed to both the top and bottom of the food package to be irradiated.

It should be noted, however, that the paraxial resolution is quite similar for both electron optical systems.

The resolution limitations for a single stage are given by the inherent resolution of the electron optical system as well as the resolution capabilities of the cathodoluminescent viewing screen.

The species that gains the electron pair is the Lewis acid ; for example, the oxygen atom in H < sub > 3 </ sub > O < sup >+</ sup > gains a pair of electrons when one of the H — O bonds is broken and the electrons shared in the bond become localized on oxygen.

As far as atoms and their electron shells were concerned, not only did this yield a better overall description, i. e. the atomic orbital model, but it also provided a new theoretical basis for chemistry

Atomic orbitals are the basic building blocks of the atomic orbital model ( alternatively known as the electron cloud or wave mechanics model ), a modern framework for visualizing the microscopic behavior of electrons in matter.

These states are labeled by a set of quantum numbers summarized in the term symbol and usually associated with particular electron configurations, i. e., by occupation schemes of atomic orbitals ( e. g., 1s < sup > 2 </ sup > 2s < sup > 2 </ sup > 2p < sup > 6 </ sup > for the ground state of neon -- term symbol: < sup > 1 </ sup > S < sub > 0 </ sub >).

For example, one can say for a given transition that it corresponds to the excitation of an electron from an occupied orbital to a given unoccupied orbital.

Atomic orbitals can be the hydrogen-like " orbitals " which are exact solutions to the Schrödinger equation for a hydrogen-like " atom " ( i. e., an atom with one electron ).

Alternatively, atomic orbitals refer to functions that depend on the coordinates of one electron ( i. e. orbitals ) but are used as starting points for approximating wave functions that depend on the simultaneous coordinates of all the electrons in an atom or molecule.

# the hydrogen-like atomic orbitals are derived from the exact solution of the Schrödinger Equation for one electron and a nucleus.

With de Broglie's suggestion of the existence of electron matter waves in 1924, and for a short time before the full 1926 Schrödinger equation treatment of hydrogen like atom, a Bohr electron " wavelength " could be seen to be a function of its momentum, and thus a Bohr orbiting electron was seen to orbit in a circle at a multiple of its half-wavelength ( this historically incorrect Bohr model is still occasionally taught to students ).

The simplest atomic orbitals are those that are calculated for systems with a single electron, such as the hydrogen atom.

The modern terms " electricity " and " electron " derive from the Greek word for amber, and come from William Gilbert's research showing that amber could attract other substances.

The word " electron " was coined in 1891 by the Irish physicist George Stoney whilst analyzing elementary charges for the first time.

The Fermi temperature is defined as this maximum energy divided by Boltzmann's constant, and is of the order of 80, 000 K for typical electron densities found in metals.

Upon ejection the kinetic energy of the Auger electron corresponds to the difference between the energy of the initial electronic transition and the ionization energy for the electron shell from which the Auger electron was ejected.

In the event the electron absorbs a quantity of energy less than the binding energy, it will transition to an excited state.

After a statistically sufficient quantity of time, an electron in an excited state will undergo a transition to a lower state.

When more electrons are added to a single atom, the additional electrons tend to more evenly fill in a volume of space around the nucleus so that the resulting collection ( sometimes termed the atom ’ s “ electron cloud ” ) tends toward a generally spherical zone of probability describing where the atom ’ s electrons will be found.

: An electron moving through a conductor will attract nearby positive charges in the lattice.

In this " condensed " state, the breaking of one pair will change the energy of the entire condensate-not just a single electron, or a single pair.

Thus the electrons stay paired together and resist all kicks, and the electron flow as a whole ( the current through the superconductor ) will not experience resistance.

For example, in the Schrödinger picture, there is a linear operator U with the property that if an electron is in state right now, then in one minute it will be in the state, the same U for every possible.

So if an electron passes through a double slit apparatus there are various probabilities for where on the detection screen that individual electron will hit.

Also, an electron positioned between two nuclei will be attracted to both of them.

In practice, the transfer of electrons will always change the oxidation number, but there are many reactions that are classed as " redox " even though no electron transfer occurs ( such as those involving covalent bonds ).

Elements are trying to reach the low-energy noble gas configuration, and therefore alkali metals and halogens will donate and accept one electron, respectively, and the noble gases themselves are chemically inactive.

Therefore, the energy of the electrons will increase upon compression, so pressure must be exerted on the electron gas to compress it, producing electron degeneracy pressure.

If the core becomes sufficiently dense, electron degeneracy pressure will play a significant part in stabilizing it against gravitational collapse.

For more massive stars, electron degeneracy pressure will not keep the iron core from collapsing to very great density, leading to formation of a neutron star, black hole, or, speculatively, a quark star.

In other words, knowing where all the previous electrons appeared on the screen and in what order tells us nothing about where any future electron will hit, even though the probabilities at specific points can be calculated.

As a bound electron transitions between different energy levels of an atom, it will absorb or emit photons at characteristic frequencies.

A bosonic monopole with the smallest possible magnetic charge and a bosonic version of the electron will form a fermionic dyon.

Ions in crystal lattices of purely ionic compounds are spherical ; however, if the positive ion is small and / or highly charged, it will distort the electron cloud of the negative ion, an effect summarised in Fajans ' rules.

Electrolytes and plasmas contain ions and will act as conductors whether or not electron flow is involved.

An electron moving through a conductor will attract nearby positive charges in the lattice.

If this binding energy is higher than the energy provided by kicks from oscillating atoms in the conductor ( which is true at low temperatures ), then the electron pair will stick together and resist all kicks, thus not experiencing resistance.

When an electron is excited from a lower to a higher energy level, it will not stay that way forever.

Moreover, even when the electron configuration is such that there are unpaired electrons and / or non-filled subshells, it is often the case that the various electrons in the solid will contribute magnetic moments that point in different, random directions, so that the material will not be magnetic.