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logical and positivists
According to the logical positivists, unless a statement could be verified by experience, or else was true or false by definition ( i. e. either tautological or contradictory ), then it was meaningless ( this is a summary statement of their verification principle ).
It located connective learning at the physical and neurological levels, rejecting the " sense data " associationism of the empiricists and logical positivists.
Karl Popper's insistence upon the role of falsification in the philosophy of science was a reaction to the logical positivists.
This caused the logical positivists to reject many traditional problems of philosophy, especially those of metaphysics or ontology, as meaningless.
Early, most logical positivists proposed that all knowledge is based on logical inference from simple " protocol sentences " grounded in observable facts.
Many logical positivists endorsed forms of materialism, metaphysical naturalism, and empiricism.
Perhaps the view for which the logical positivists are best known is the verifiability criterion of meaning, or verificationism.
An intended consequence of this opinion, for most logical positivists, is that metaphysical, theological, and ethical statements fail this criterion, and so are not cognitively meaningful.
This defense was controversial among logical positivists, some of whom touted strong verification, and claimed that general propositions were indeed nonsense.
The main influences on the early logical positivists were the positivist Ernst Mach, Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell and the young Ludwig Wittgenstein.
Mach's influence is most apparent in the logical positivists ' persistent concern with metaphysics, the unity of science, and the interpretation of the theoretical terms of science, as well as the doctrines of reductionism and phenomenalism, later abandoned by many positivists.
" The tractarian doctrine that the truths of logic are tautologies was widely believed among the logical positivists.
Wittgenstein also influenced the logical positivists ' interpretation of probability.
According to Neurath, some logical positivists disliked the Tractatus, since they thought it included a great deal of metaphysics.
Contemporary developments in logic and the foundations of mathematics, especially Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead's monumental Principia Mathematica, impressed the more mathematically minded logical positivists such as Hans Hahn and Rudolf Carnap.
But even this criticism was not unknown to the logical positivists: Otto Neurath compared science to a boat which we must rebuild on the open sea.
; Articles by logical positivists
As with the study of ethics, early analytic philosophy tended to avoid the study of philosophy of religion, largely dismissing ( as per the logical positivists view ) the subject as part of metaphysics and therefore meaningless.
Kuhn's model of scientific change differs here, and in many places, from that of the logical positivists in that it puts an enhanced emphasis on the individual humans involved as scientists, rather than abstracting science into a purely logical or philosophical venture.
Tractatus was influential chiefly amongst the logical positivists of the Vienna Circle, such as Rudolf Carnap and Friedrich Waismann.
Although the Vienna Circle's logical positivists appreciated the Tractatus, they argued that the last few passages, including Proposition 7, are confused.

logical and held
On one extreme is logical positivism, which denies the validity of any beliefs held by faith ; on the other extreme is fideism, which holds that true belief can only arise from faith, because reason and physical evidence cannot lead to truth.
Falsum in uno, falsum in omnibus status as a logical fallacy is independent of whether it is wise or unwise to use as a legal rule, with witnesses testifying in courts being held for perjury if part of their statements are false.
In other words, Ramsey held that epistemic probabilities simply are degrees of rational belief, rather than being logical relations that merely constrain degrees of rational belief.
Rudolf Carnap held, for example, that logical principles always determine a unique logical probability for any statement, relative to any body of evidence.
While the Assembly ’ s reasoning is superficially logical, its rejection of the name “ Jefferson ” almost certainly was motivated by the considerable antagonism held by dominant Federalist politicians in Hartford, who led New England in their opposition to President Jefferson and his policies.
" While some earlier philosophers ( most notably Plato and Descartes ) held that logical statements such as these contained the most formal reality, since they are always true and unchanging, Hume held that, while true, they contain no formal reality, because the truth of the statements rests on the definitions of the words involved, and not on actual things in the world, since there is no such thing as a true triangle or exact equality of length in the world.
In addition to being a cognitive bias and a poor way of making decisions, wishful thinking is commonly held to be a specific logical fallacy in an argument when it is assumed that because we wish something to be true or false that it is actually true or false.
Other critics held that Faurisson's statements were the archetype of anti-Semitism, and that the logical conclusion of Chomsky's statement would be that Nazism was not anti-Semitic.
Strongly critical of positivism, logical atomism, pragmatism, and most varieties of empiricism, he held that the universe consists of an Absolute in the form of a single all-encompassing intelligible system in which each element has a necessary place.
( Blanshard held the law of causality, properly understood, to be a logical law and believed that effects logically determine their causes as well as vice versa.
However Melway have kept the need for this to an absolute minimum over the years and have held off several cartographic features, including a more logical overall tiling of pages across the entire metropolitan area ( which do appear in the Sydway and Brisway ) in order to protect the integrity and continuity of the original 1966 grid references.
Logical positivism held that only statements about empirical observations and formal logical propositions are meaningful, and that statements which are not derived in this manner ( including religious and metaphysical statements ) are by nature meaningless ( see the verifiability theory of meaning also known as verificationism ).
According to Strauss, the Reductio ad Hitlerum is a logical fallacy that consists of trying to refute an opponent's view by comparing it to a view that would be held by Adolf Hitler or the Nazi Party.
Kuhn's thinking on incommensurability was probably in some part influenced by his reading of Michael Polanyi who held that there can be a logical gap between belief systems and who also said that scientists from different schools, " think differently, speak a different language, live in a different world.
What is more, Richardson held the belief that Pearl Harbor was the logical first point of attack for the Japanese High Command, wedded as it was to the theory of undeclared and surprise warfare.
He held that, while Śrīharśa had failed successfully to challenge the Nyāya realist ontology, his and Gangeśa's own criticisms brought out a need to improve and refine the logical and linguistic tools of Nyāya thought, to make them more rigorous and precise.
" Others, however, criticized the oratorio, arguing that " with all its very great and solid merit, can be said to be original in style only in virtue of the logical results of certain theories of harmony held by its composer.
The House of Lords held that there would have to be a logical basis for the opinion not to intubate.
To address these logical breakdowns, rating systems usually consider other criteria such as the game's score and where the match was held ( for example, to assess a home field advantage ).

logical and wide
Today, however, game theory applies to a wide range of class relations, and has developed into an umbrella term for the logical side of science, to include both human and non-humans, like computers.
Frame Relay is a standardized wide area network technology that specifies the physical and logical link layers of digital telecommunications channels using a packet switching methodology.
The initial version of VHDL, designed to IEEE standard 1076-1987, included a wide range of data types, including numerical ( integer and real ), logical ( bit and boolean ), character and time, plus arrays of < tt > bit </ tt > called < tt > bit_vector </ tt > and of < tt > character </ tt > called string.
This defines a wide variety of data about the volume itself, for example date & time stamps for when the volume was created, the location of the other volume structures such as the Volume Bitmap or the size of logical structures such as allocation blocks.
* 9 × 19mm Parabellum: Invented for the German military at the turn of the 20th century, the wide distribution of the 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge made it the logical choice for the NATO standard pistol and SMG round.
This book displayed a vigorous scientific imagination, controlled by a logical sense that rigidly distinguished between fact and hypothesis, and it quickly won wide recognition, both as an admirable digest of the numberless observations made with regard to the development of animals during the quarter of a century preceding its publication, and as a work of original research.
They awarded the prize to Tyson, as they “ admired the way in which his work embraces the poetic, the logical, the humorous and the fantastical and draws connections between them ,” and praised “ the strong visual energy of his work across a wide range of media .”
Cg supports a wide range of operators, including the common arithmetic operators from C, the equivalent arithmetic operators for vector and matrix data types, and the common logical operators.
A wide variety of arguments exist which can be categorized as metaphysical, logical, empirical, or subjective.
In contrast to policy and Lincoln-Douglas debate, there is little focus on extreme speed or arcane debate jargon or argumentation theory ; instead, successful public forum debaters must make persuasive and logical arguments in a manner that is accessible to a wide variety of audiences.
ISO 15000-5 is an implementation layer of ISO 11179 and normatively expresses a set of rules to semantically define conceptual and physical / logical data models for a wide variety of uses.
Atheism in the twentieth century found recognition in a wide variety of other, broader philosophies in the Western tradition, such as existentialism, Objectivism, secular humanism, nihilism, logical positivism, Marxism, anarchism, feminism, and the general scientific and rationalist movement.

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