Secular music in medieval France was dominated by troubadours, jongleurs and trouveres, who were poets and musicians known for creating forms like the ballade and lai.

During the same period a movement with similar aims had also developed in France under the direction of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc a French architect and theorist, famous for his " restorations " of medieval buildings.

The spine could be used for the incipit, before the concept of a proper title was developed, during medieval times.

The dagger reappeared in the 12th century as the " knightly dagger " and was developed into a common arm and tool for civilian use by the late medieval period.

During what is often referred to as the Islamic Golden Age, in order for a scholar to be qualified to issue a fatwā, it was required that he obtained an ijazat attadris wa ' l-ifta (" license to teach and issue legal opinions ") from a Madrassah in the medieval Islamic legal education system, which was developed by the 9th century during the formation of the Madh ' hab legal schools.

The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit a faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill.

Specifically, within the medieval Oyo Empire of present day southwestern Nigeria and Benin, separate guilds developed for professional dancers, mask carvers, and musicians associated with egungun ancestral masquerade performances often regarded as the predecessor to the traveling Alarinjo theatre.

Dutch heraldry is characterised by its simple and rather sober style, and in this sense, is closer to its medieval origins than the elaborate styles which developed in other heraldic traditions.

The theory of impetus, the ancestor to the concepts of inertia and momentum, was developed along similar lines by medieval philosophers such as John Philoponus and Jean Buridan.

Following a change in vowel pronunciation that marks the transition of English from the medieval to the Renaissance period, the language of the Chancery and Caxton became Early Modern English ( the language of Shakespeare's day ) and with relatively moderate changes eventually developed into the English language of today.

Laborde developed the medieval section and purchased the first such statues and sculptures in the collection, King Childebert and stanga door, respectively.

In antiquity, the less complicated labyrinth pattern familiar from medieval examples was already developed.

Roman meander patterns gradually developed in complexity towards the fourfold shape that is now familiarly known as the medieval form.

Their cultural heritage was acquired and developed in medieval Bulgaria, where after 885 the region of Ohrid became a significant ecclesiastical center with the nomination of the Saint Clement of Ohrid for " first archbishop in Bulgarian language " with residence in this region.

However, many of the ideas, particularly as pertain to inertia ( impetus ) and falling bodies had been developed and stated by earlier researchers, both the then-recent Galileo and the less-known medieval predecessors.

While modern identification of mushrooms is quickly becoming molecular, the standard methods for identification are still used by most and have developed into a fine art harking back to medieval times and the Victorian era, combined with microscopic examination.

Beaumaris Castle in Wales was built in the late 13th century and is an example of concentric castle s which developed in the medieval period.

Most important was Calvinist theology, which developed in the Swiss Confederacy, one of the largest and most powerful of the medieval republics.

To end a siege more rapidly various methods were developed in ancient and medieval times to counter fortifications, and a large variety of siege engines were developed for use by besieging armies.

Ship technology advanced to the point where by the medieval period, water tight compartments were developed.

The origins of the Ijazah dates back to the ijazat attadris wa ' l-ifttd (" license to teach and issue legal opinions ") in the medieval Islamic legal education system, which was equivalent to the Doctor of Laws qualification and was developed during the 9th century after the formation of the Madh ' hab legal schools.

It is widely accepted that Copernicus's De revolutionibus followed the outline and method set by Ptolemy in his Almagest and employed geometrical constructions that had been developed previously by the Maragheh school in his heliocentric model, and that Galileo's mathematical treatment of acceleration and his concept of impetus rejected earlier medieval analyses of motion, rejecting by name ; Averroes, Avempace, Jean Buridan, and John Philoponus ( see Theory of impetus ).

The scientific revolution was built upon the foundation of ancient Greek learning and science in the middle ages, as it had been elaborated and further developed by Roman / Byzantine science and medieval Islamic science.

In many ways the Smaug episode reflects and references the dragon of Beowulf, and Tolkien uses the episode to put into practice some of the ground-breaking literary theories he had developed about the Anglo-Saxon poem and its early medieval portrayal of the dragon as having bestial intelligence.

The idea of an artifact made conscious is an ancient theme of mythology, appearing for example in the Greek myth of Pygmalion, who carved a statue that was magically brought to life, and in medieval Jewish stories of the Golem, a magically animated homunculus built of clay.

In many cases, medieval mythology appears to have inherited elements from myths of pagan gods and heroes.

According to Lorena Laura Stookey, " many scholars " see a link between stories in " Irish-Celtic mythology " about journeys to the Otherworld in search of a cauldron of rejuvenation and medieval accounts of the quest for the Holy Grail.

The books are the main sources of medieval skaldic tradition in Iceland and Norse mythology.

The sixteen books, in prose with an occasional excursion into poetry, can be categorized into two parts: Books 1-9, which deal with Norse mythology, and Books 10-16, which deal with medieval history.

The mythology of pre-Christian Ireland did not entirely survive the conversion to Christianity, but much of it was preserved, shorn of its religious meanings, in medieval Irish literature, which represents the most extensive and best preserved of all the branch and the Historical Cycle.

The virtuous pagans of classical history and mythology inhabit a brightly lit and beautiful — but somber — castle which is seemingly a medieval version of Elysium.

Another view is that Robin Hood's origins must be sought in folklore or mythology ; Despite the frequent Christian references in the early ballads, Robin Hood has been claimed for the pagan witch-cult supposed by Margaret Murray to have existed in medieval Europe.

Other giants, perhaps descended from earlier Germanic mythology, feature as frequent opponents of Dietrich von Bern in medieval German tales-in later portrayals Dietrich himself and his fellow heroes also became giants.

A number of legendary bards in Welsh mythology have been preserved in medieval Welsh literature such as the Red Book of Hergest, the White Book of Rhydderch, the Book of Aneirin and the Book of Taliesin.

The poet and mythologist Robert Graves asserts that certain elements of that mythology originate with the native Pelasgian people ( namely the parts related to his concept of the White Goddess, an archetypical Earth Goddess ) drawing additional support for his conclusion from his interpretations of other ancient literature: Irish, Welsh, Greek, Biblical, Gnostic, and medieval writings.

It appears that Herodias, the wife of Herod Antipas, in Christian mythology of the early medieval period came to be seen as a spirit condemned to wander the sky forever, permitted only to rest in treetops between midnight and dawn.

Culhwch (, with the final consonant of Scottish " loch "), in Welsh mythology, is the son of Cilydd son of Celyddon and Goleuddydd, a cousin of Arthur and the protagonist of the story Culhwch and Olwen ( the earliest of the medieval Welsh tales usually, but erroneously, referred to collectively as the Mabinogion ).

The Wandering Jew is a figure from medieval Christian mythology ( sometimes referred to as Christian folklore ) whose legend began to spread in Europe in the 13th century.

The tales draw on pre-Christian Celtic mythology, international folktale motifs, and early medieval historical traditions.

During the medieval period, Newgrange and the wider Brú na Bóinne Neolithic complex, gained various attributes in local folklore, which was often connected to figures from wider Irish mythology.

The pepla are a specific class of Italian adventure or fantasy films that have subjects set in Biblical, medieval or classical antiquity, often with contrived plots based very loosely on mythology, legendary Greco-Roman history, or the other contemporary cultures of the time, such as the Egyptians, Assyrians, Etruscans, etc.

The work is cast in the form of a dialogue full of riddles, in which Solomon, the wisest king of the land of Israel, and Saturn, the eldest of the elder gods of Roman mythology, though identified in the poem as a prince of the Chaldeans, quiz each other on Biblical, runic, and similar medieval lore.

Together with the Matter of France, which concerned the legends of Charlemagne, and the Matter of Rome, which included material derived from or inspired by classical mythology, it was one of the three great literary cycles recalled repeatedly in medieval literature.

The story of Troilus and Cressida is a medieval tale that is not part of Greek mythology ; Shakespeare drew on a number of sources for this plotline, in particular Chaucer's version of the tale, Troilus and Criseyde, but also John Lydgate's Troy Book and Caxton's translation of the Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye.

According to the medieval poet Jean Bodel, the Matter of Rome was the literary cycle made up of Greek and Roman mythology, together with episodes from the history of classical antiquity, focusing on military heroes like Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar.

Inspiration for her character came from earlier Welsh mythology and literature ; she has often been compared with the goddess Modron, a figure derived from the continental Dea Matrona and featured with some frequency in medieval Welsh literature.

" Scholarship in Comparative Literature include, for example, studying literacy and social status in the Americas, studying medieval epic and romance, studying the links of literature to folklore and mythology, studying colonial and postcolonial writings in different parts of the world, asking fundamental questions about definitions of literature itself.

Although these examples use medieval and Arthurian materials, romances may also tell stories from classical mythology.