Mars has been observed twice at about 3-cm wave length, and the intensity of the observed radiation is in reasonable agreement with the thermal radiation which might be predicted on the basis of the known temperature of Mars.

The apparent black-body disk temperature is the temperature which must be assumed for the black body in order that the intensity of its radiation should equal that of the observed radiation.

By comparing reaction cells sealed from the same manifold temperature dependency corresponding to activation energies ranging from 11 to 18 Af was observed while dependence on the first power of the light intensity seemed to be indicated in most cases.

The last column shows the rate of exchange that would have been observed at a relative intensity of 4 ( 14.7 cm. distance ) calculated on the assumptions that the incident light intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the lamp from the cell and that the rate is directly proportional to the incident light intensity.

In fact, any increase or decrease in radiation intensity that is observed to the same extent at all pixels chosen for correction is eliminated by the correction algorithm.

Therefore, four loose families of more-efficient light transport modelling techniques have emerged: rasterization, including scanline rendering, geometrically projects objects in the scene to an image plane, without advanced optical effects ; ray casting considers the scene as observed from a specific point-of-view, calculating the observed image based only on geometry and very basic optical laws of reflection intensity, and perhaps using Monte Carlo techniques to reduce artifacts ; and ray tracing is similar to ray casting, but employs more advanced optical simulation, and usually uses Monte Carlo techniques to obtain more realistic results at a speed that is often orders of magnitude slower.

Lenard observed the variation in electron energy with light frequency using a powerful electric arc lamp which enabled him to investigate large changes in intensity, and that had sufficient power to enable him to investigate the variation of potential with light frequency.

* The maximum effect that is observed is produced by a causative agent of barely detectable intensity, and the magnitude of the effect is substantially independent of the intensity of the cause.

Since the amplitude at these reflections grows linearly with the number N of scatterers, the observed intensity of these spots should grow quadratically, like N < sup > 2 </ sup >.

Such samples have a continuous Fourier spectrum that uniformly spreads its amplitude thereby reducing the measured signal intensity, as is observed in SAXS.

The zodiacal light decreases in intensity with distance from the Sun, but on very dark nights it has been observed in a band completely around the ecliptic.

is the observed intensity after a given path, then optical depth is defined by the

In optics, Lambert's cosine law says that the radiant intensity or luminous intensity observed from an ideal diffusely reflecting surface or ideal diffuse radiator is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle θ between the observer's line of sight and the surface normal.

Brightness temperature is the temperature a black body in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings would have to be to duplicate the observed intensity of a grey body object at a frequency.

However, as of March 2012, the latest IPCC report on extreme events SREX states that " there is low confidence in any observed long-term ( i. e., 40 years or more ) increases in tropical cyclone activity ( i. e., intensity, frequency, duration ), after accounting for past changes in observing capabilities.

Pinhole devices provide safety for the eyes when viewing solar eclipses because the event is observed indirectly, the diminished intensity of the pinhole image being harmless compared with the full glare of the Sun itself.

( where is optical density of exposed photographic emulsion, a function of, the intensity of the source being observed, and, the exposure time, with a constant ).

Of the remaining planets, only Mars and Saturn have been observed as radio sources, and not very much information is available.

Nowadays, UT is the observed orientation of the Earth relative to an inertial reference frame formed by extra-galactic radio sources, modified by an adopted ratio between sidereal time and solar time.

If planets orbit the pulsar, they will cause slight anomalies in the timing of its observed radio pulses.

In the summer of 1912, Edwin Armstrong observed oscillations in audion radio receiver circuits and went on to use positive feedback in his invention of the regenerative receiver.

President Obama observed, " If media is operating basically as a talk radio format, then that's one thing, and if it's operating as a news outlet, then that's another ".

This produces a " shadow " in the observed cosmic microwave background at some radio frequencies.

Interference effects can be observed with all types of waves, for example, light, radio, acoustic, and surface water waves.

Such aircraft can land in fog at airports equipped with radar-assisted ground-controlled approach systems in which the plane's flight is observed on radar screens while operators radio landing directions to the pilot.

The book observed that Turner “ discovered his father had sheltered a substantial amount of taxable income over the years by personally lending it back to the company ” and “ discovered that the billboard business could be a gold mine, a tax-depreciable revenue stream that threw off enormous amounts of cash with almost no capital investment .” In the late 1960s, Turner used the profits to buy Southern radio stations.

The speckle effect is observed when radio waves are scattered from rough surfaces such as ground or sea, and can also be found in ultrasonic imaging.

It is observed as the diurnal motion of stars or extraterrestrial radio sources.

In addition, there is no radio emission, and the visible continuum is roughly what would be expected from a hot plasma fitting the observed X-ray flux.

Strong lenses have been observed in radio and x-ray regimes as well.

They produce radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum at all wavelengths, from radio waves to gamma rays, although most of the energy goes to frequencies outside the visual range and for this reason the majority of the flares are not visible to the naked eye and must be observed with special instruments.

The initial detection of radio waves from an astronomical object was made in the 1930s, when Karl Jansky observed radiation coming from the Milky Way.

Before Jansky observed the Milky Way in the 1930s, physicists speculated that radio waves could be observed from astronomical sources.

Also since angular resolution is a function of the diameter of the " objective " in proportion to the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation being observed, radio telescopes have to be much larger in comparison to their optical counterparts.

For example a 1 meter diameter optical telescope is two million times bigger than the wavelength of light observed giving it a resolution of roughly 0. 3 arc seconds, whereas a radio telescope " dish " many times that size may, depending on the wavelength observed, only be able to resolve an object the size of the full moon ( 30 minutes of arc ).

The Cambridge group of Ryle and Vonberg observed the sun at 175 MHz for the first time in mid July 1946 with a Michelson interferometer consisting of two radio antennas with spacings of some tens of meters up to 240 meters.

In an attempt to attract further deliveries of goods, followers of the cults engaged in ritualistic practices such as building crude imitation landing strips, aircraft and radio equipment, and mimicking the behavior that they had observed of the military personnel operating them.

A recording of the minutes in which British technicians at the radio telescope facility in Jodrell Bank observed Luna 15's descent was first made available to the public on 3 July 2009.

This phenomenon can be easily observed by scanning the medium wave radio dial at night.

The constant-temperature contours are much smoother than those observed at 4.3 mm by Coates ( 1959 ) and apparently the emission at 8 mm is not nearly so sensitive to differences in surface features.

This emission can be observed, for example, after dispersing berkelium ions in a silicate glass, by melting the glass in presence of berkelium oxide or halide.

The E-corona ( E for emission ) is due to spectral emission lines produced by ions that are present in the coronal plasma ; it may be observed in broad or forbidden or hot spectral emission lines and is the main source of information about the corona's composition.

They observed several weak emission lines, which they presumed to be those of element 87.

Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide ( GaSb ), GaAs, indium phosphide ( InP ), and silicon-germanium ( SiGe ) alloys at room temperature and at 77 kelvin.

Stimulated emission was first observed in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum, giving rise to the acronym MASER for Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

Quasars also show ' forbidden ' spectral emission lines which were previously only seen in hot gaseous nebulae of low density, which would be too diffuse to both generate the observed power and fit within a deep gravitational well.

Round observed light emission when electric current passed through silicon carbide crystals, the principle behind the light emitting diode.

Oleg Losev observed similar light emission in 1922 but at the time the effect had no practical use.

Theoretically, all five can decay into isotopes of element 72 ( hafnium ) by alpha emission, but only < sup > 180 </ sup > W has been observed to do so with a half-life of ( 1. 8 ± 0. 2 )× 10 < sup > 18 </ sup > years ; on average, this yields about two alpha decays of < sup > 180 </ sup > W in one gram of natural tungsten per year.

Based on an observed excess emission of infrared radiation, Vega appears to have a circumstellar disk of dust.

It has the same radiance because, although the emitted power from a given area element is reduced by the cosine of the emission angle, the apparent size ( solid angle ) of the observed area, as seen by a viewer, is decreased by a corresponding amount.

They can be observed as dark clouds silhouetted against bright emission nebulae or background stars.

The structure of the molecular cloud and the effects of the protostar can be observed in near-IR extinction maps ( where the number of stars are counted per unit area and compared to a nearby zero extinction area of sky ), continuum dust emission and rotational transitions of CO and other molecules ; these last two are observed in the millimeter and submillimeter range.

From the observed X-ray spectrum, combined with spectral emission results for other wavelength ranges, an astronomical model addressing the likely source of X-ray emission can be constructed.

No two gamma-ray burst light curves are identical, with large variation observed in almost every property: the duration of observable emission can vary from milliseconds to tens of minutes, there can be a single peak or several individual subpulses, and individual peaks can be symmetric or with fast brightening and very slow fading.

A unique gamma ray emission event, GRB 110328A, lasting more than two and a half months was observed starting March 28, 2011, originating from the center of a small galaxy at redshift z = 0. 3534.

Any successful model of GRB emission must explain the physical process for generating gamma-ray emission that matches the observed diversity of light-curves, spectra, and other characteristics.