Al-Andalus was rife with internal conflict between the Islamic Umayyad rulers and people and the Christian Visigoth-Roman leaders and people.

The Taifa kingdoms lost ground to the Christian realms in the north and, after the loss of Toledo in 1085, the Muslim rulers reluctantly invited the Almoravides, who invaded Al-Andalus from North Africa and established an empire.

Jews in Muslim countries were not entirely free from persecution — for example, many were killed, exiled or forcibly converted in the 12th century, in Persia and by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in North Africa and Al-Andalus.

Arab historians unanimously praise Abdul Rahman as a just and able administrator and commander, and bestow on him the honor of being the best governor of Al-Andalus, where he did not take sides in the ethnic and tribal divisions that plagued Al-Andalus under other rulers.

Mozarab is the term for the Christian population living under Muslim rulers in Al-Andalus.

The black was the color of the banner of Muhammad, and of the Abbasid Caliphate ; white was used by the Umayyad Caliphate ; green was used by the Fatimid Caliphate as a reminder of the Battle of Badr to symbolize their support of Ali Bin Abi Talib ; red was the flag held by the Khawarij, and then became the symbol of rulers in the Maghreb, and Al-Andalus.

The Iberian Peninsula was called Al-Andalus by its Muslim rulers.

The French were now occupying Gascony and Flanders on the technical grounds that their rulers had forfeited them by a breach of the feudal contract.

The intellectual society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of government, war, and diplomacy.

It is possible that the reguli were the rulers of the two pagi in each kingdom.

He was supported by the bulk of Iberian peoples, who were discontent with the heavy taxation imposed upon them by their spend-thrift rulers.

In some other respects the Athenians were not the old popular rulers they had been at first ; and if they had more than their fair share of service, it was correspondingly easy for them to reduce any that tried to leave the confederacy.

The Assyrians were prized by the British rulers for their fighting qualities, loyalty, bravery and discipline, and were used to help the British put down insurrections among the Arabs and Kurds.

However, there is controversy about whether they were genuinely recorded at the time or merely ascribed to ancient rulers by posterity.

All were said to have been remembered as just and pious rulers.

However, the Chauhan rulers were allowed autonomy upon the payment of a heavy tribute to the conquerors.

The archbishops of Riga were also the secular rulers of Riga until 1561 when during the reformation the territory converted from Catholicism to Lutheranism and all church territories were secularized.

The rulers of Mercia were generally the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon kings from the mid-7th to the early 9th centuries, but are not accorded the title of bretwalda by the Chronicle, which is generally thought to be because of the anti-Mercian bias of the Chroniclers.

With the transition of rulers and the young age and inexperience of Jehoiachin, they were not able to stand against Chaldean forces.

In effect, the shorter the ruler, the longer the measured border ; thus, the Spanish and Portuguese geographers were using different-length rulers.

Wisdom's films, in which he usually played a family man worker who outsmarts his boss, were some of the few Western films considered acceptable by the country's communist rulers, thus Albanians grew familiar and attached to Wisdom.

Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods were expropriated by the Ming rulers.

Thereafter all republican rulers were styled " president ".

The short-lived 11th dynasty of the Kings of Babylon ( 6th century BC ) is conventionally known to historians as the Chaldean Dynasty, although only the first four rulers of this dynasty were known to be Chaldeans, and the last ruler, Nabonidus ( and his son and regent Belshazzar ) was known to be from Assyria.

Although these writings were considered too radical at the time for Britain's new rulers, they later came to be cited by Whigs, radicals and supporters of the American Revolution.

As a trustee, Government was expected to serve the interests of the people, not the rulers, and rulers were expected to follow the laws enacted by legislatures.

In a much later period, when Greece was ruled by the Latin Empire, the same strongpoints were used by the new feudal rulers for much the same purposes.

The rulers were the great patrons of art, and the various crafts underwent a simultaneous and parallel development, influencing each other.

In 1848, several revolutions broke out in Europe as rulers were confronted with popular demands for liberal constitutions and more democratic government.

A major factor in the ascendancy of Moscow was the cooperation of its rulers with the Mongol overlords, who granted them the title of Grand Prince of Moscow and made them agents for collecting the Tatar tribute from the Russian principalities.

It comprises a list of the revenues of the Apostolic See, a record of donations received, privileges granted, and contracts made with cities and rulers.

He also tasked his grandsons as summer rulers of the city when most of the government were on holiday in the country or attending religious rituals, and, for that task, granted them the title of princeps.

In subsequent years Steinway was granted royal and imperial warrants from the rulers of Italy, Norway, Persia, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain, Sweden and Turkey.

Nobuhiro's descendants became the rulers of the Matsumae-han, which was granted exclusive trading rights with the Ainu in the Azuchi-Momoyama and Edo periods ( 1568 – 1868 ).

The town was granted in 1642 to the Grimaldi family, rulers of Monaco, as a French marquisiate.

In the shtetls populated almost entirely by Jews, or in the middle-sized town where Jews constituted a significant part of population, Jewish communities traditionally ruled themselves according to halakha, and were limited by the privileges granted them by local rulers.

In 664 / 666 the bishop of Speyer was granted immunity, a privilege repeatedly confirmed by following rulers, e. g. by Charlemagne in 782.

Except of the title, Duke of Saxony, Angria and Westphalia, which this younger Duchy of Saxony granted its rulers, even after its definite dynastic partition in 1296, this territory, consisting only of territorial fringes of the old Duchy of Saxony until 1180, had little in common with the latter.

He desired to link himself to the former Bulgarian Empire, stressing the Papal origins of his crown by claiming ( perhaps with some accuracy ), that the Papacy had granted an imperial crown to the rulers of the First Bulgarian Empire, as noted above.

Upon electing themselves rulers of all from Heaven, the Celestines retreated to the city of Yu-Shan to oversee from on high and play in the Games of Divinity, and granted the Exalted the Creation-Ruling Mandate as a boon for their service to the new order.

He was awarded his the status of " Prince " by the British government's representatives in India and became the only religious or community leader in British India granted a personal gun salute ; all other salute dynasties were either rulers of Princely States, or Political Pensioners holding ancestral princely titles in states abolished by the British.

New Spain was founded as a state under Spanish rule but where Nahua people were recognized as allies of the rulers and as such were granted privileges and a degree of independence that other indigenous peoples of the area did not enjoy.

These were usually named after the estates of the family in question, but sometimes the Habsburg rulers of Austria also granted victory titles.

Such licences were granted by the king, and by the rulers of the counties palatine within their jurisdictions, i. e. by the Bishops of Durham and the Earls of Chester and after 1351 by the Dukes of Lancaster.

Immediately upon being crowned King of Goguryeo, Gwanggaeto granted himself the title " Supreme King Yeongnak ", affirming himself as equal to the rulers of China and the King of Baekje.

He became involved in extensive missionary work across North America and most of the countries of Europe, in prisons and hospitals, and was respectfully granted meetings with many rulers and dignitaries, including Pope Pius VII, Czar Alexander I, and the Kings of Spain and Prussia.

Puppet Inca rulers established after the conquest also sought and were granted encomiendas.

Among other things, taxes were to be collected by local Serbian rulers called knezes (" local dukes "), freedom of trade and religion were granted.

In 1466 King Casimir IV of Poland granted the town as a fief to the rulers of Gdańsk, which ended the century-long struggle for economical domination over the Gdańsk Bay.

The Jurchen rulers granted the two former emperors offensively named ranks of the Marquess ( 侯, hou ) of Hunde ( 昏德, " Muddled Virtue ") and marquess of Zhonghun ( 重昏, " Doubly muddled ").

) Generally, the number of guns remained the same for all successive rulers of a particular state, but individual princes were sometimes granted additional guns on a personal basis.

Furthermore, rulers were sometimes granted additional gun salutes within their own territories only, constituting a semi-promotion.

For years, a few rulers not formally under the control of the British were granted 21 guns ( Nepal, Muscat & Oman, Mosquito Coast and Zanzibar ) or even 31 guns ( Afghanistan and Siam ).