Commodore soon had a profitable calculator line and was one of the more popular brands in the early 1970s, producing both consumer as well as scientific / programmable calculators.

Many calculators continued to use two or more integrated circuits ( ICs ), especially the scientific and the programmable ones, into the late 1970s.

The companies that survived making calculators tended to be those with high outputs of higher quality calculators, or producing high-specification scientific and programmable calculators.

HP used RPN on every handheld calculator it sold, whether scientific, financial, or programmable, until it introduced the HP-10 adding machine calculator in 1977.

Sinclair realised that by using RPN and allowing a reduced precision of 4 or 5 significant figures displayed in scientific notation, the algorithms for scientific functions could be redesigned and compacted to fit in the same programmable space on the chip.

Most popular graphing calculators are also programmable, allowing the user to create customized programs, typically for scientific / engineering and education applications.

The first applications of computers to medicine and healthcare in Brazil started around 1968, with the installation of the first mainframes in public university hospitals, and the use of programmable calculators in scientific research applications.

The first scientific calculator that included all of the basic features above was the programmable Hewlett-Packard HP-9100A, released in 1968, though the Wang LOCI-2 and the Mathatronics Mathatron had some features later identified with scientific calculator designs.

* Programmable calculators – Specifications and descriptions of many programmable and scientific calculators

The HP-25 was a smaller, cheaper model of a programmable scientific calculator without magnetic card reader, with features much like the HP-65.

* HP-20S — A basic scientific calculator, using infix notation, barely programmable and with no graphing capabilities.

* HP 35s — Introduced to commemorate the 35th anniversary of the HP-35, it is an advanced scientific programmable calculator, featuring algebraic and RPN modes, hyperbolics, statistics, numerical integration, numerical solver, random number generation, equations, and full programmability, using up to 32 Kb of RAM for programs and data.

Few games exist for the earliest of programmable calculators ( including the Hewlett-Packard 9100A, one of the first scientific calculators ), including the long-popular Lunar Lander game often used as an early programming exercise.

While the scientific community was once divided between supporters of the Big Bang and those of alternative cosmological models, most scientists became convinced that some version of the Big Bang scenario best fit observations after the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964, and especially when its spectrum ( i. e., the amount of radiation measured at each wavelength ) was found to match that of thermal radiation from a black body.

The field is usually seen as compatible with the physical sciences, and uses the scientific method as well as simulation or modeling, often comparing the output of models with aspects of human behavior.

Rendering research is concerned with both the adaptation of scientific models and their efficient application.

Starting with Hart, a great deal of effort has gone into developing scientific theories about, and possible models of, extraterrestrial life, and the Fermi paradox has become a theoretical reference point in much of this work.

Although his many anatomical experiments on animal models led him to a more complete understanding of the circulatory system, nervous system, respiratory system and other structures, his work was not without scientific inaccuracies.

The System / 360 was a single series of compatible models for both commercial and scientific use.

In his most recent book, " The Vanishing Face of Gaia ", he rejects scientific modelling that disagrees with the scientific findings that sea levels are rising faster, and Arctic ice is melting faster, than the models predict and he suggests that we may already be beyond the tipping point of terrestrial climate into a permanently hot state.

* Scientific modelling, the process of generating abstract models for the iterative development of hypotheses as part of the scientific method

* Similitude ( model ), in engineering, used in the scientific testing of physical models

There is significant scientific debate about the relative merits of categorical versus such non-categorical ( or hybrid ) schemes, also known as continuum or dimensional models.

In the end science and scientific rationality, often taking models from the 18th-century Enlightenment, came to be seen as the source of logic and stability, while the basic primitive sexual and unconscious drives, along with the seemingly counter-intuitive workings of the new machine age, were taken as the basic emotional substance.

In many cases, the quality of a scientific field depends on how well the mathematical models developed on the theoretical side agree with results of repeatable experiments.

For example, the experiments at the PEAR laboratory were criticized in a paper published by the Journal of Parapsychology, in which parapsychologists independent from the PEAR laboratory concluded that these experiments " depart from criteria usually expected in formal scientific experimentation " due to " roblems with regard to randomization, statistical baselines, application of statistical models, agent coding of descriptor lists, feedback to percipients, sensory cues, and precautions against cheating.

* Society for Psychical Research Founded in 1882, the SPR was the first society to conduct organised scholarly research into parapsychology and other human experiences that challenge contemporary scientific models.

Ptolemy's model, like those of his predecessors, was geocentric and was almost universally accepted until the appearance of simpler heliocentric models during the scientific revolution.

Quantum gravity ( QG ) is the field of theoretical physics which attempts to develop scientific models that unify quantum mechanics ( describing three of the four known fundamental interactions ) with general relativity ( describing the fourth, gravity ).

As of 2011, Hewlett-Packard is producing the calculator models 12C, 12C Platinum, 17BII, 20B ( financial ), 30B ( business ), 33S, 35S, 48GII and 50G ( scientific ) which support RPN.

For large volume scientific datasets, such as satellite data and output of numerical climate, weather, or ocean models, specific binary serialization standards have been developed, e. g. HDF, netCDF and the older GRIB.

Note that the term theory would not be appropriate for describing untested but intricate hypotheses or even scientific models.

In the semantic view of theories, which has largely replaced the received view, theories are viewed as scientific models.

More specialized think tanks has also emerged in Spain during the past 10 years, like the Future Trends Forum from Bankinter Foundation, a unique think tank in Europe, focused on detecting social, economic, scientific and technological trends and analyzing their possible application and impact on current business models.

This comprises the central scientific justification for the use of models in wind tunnels to simulate real-life phenomena.

A scientific examination of cosmogony using existing physical models would face many challenges.

A credulousness, a distaste for documentation, an uncritical reliance on contemporary accounts, and a proneness to assume a theory as true before adequate proof was provided were all evidences of his failure to comprehend the use of the scientific method or to evaluate the responsibilities of the historian to his reading public.

During this period, a total of 762 exhibits were presented at 442 medical and scientific meetings.

Theories of the behavior pattern of population masses were compared to scientific discoveries concerning the motion-pattern of gaseous masses.

Some of the earliest attempts to apply scientific methods to the study of phenomena relating to an afterlife were conducted by this organization.

Several members of the scientific community remarked that the central lunar highlands resembled regions on Earth that were created by volcanic processes and hypothesized the same might be true on the Moon.

At the Alphonsus, three scientific objectives were determined to be of primary interest and paramount importance: the possibility of old, pre-Imbrium impact material from within the crater's wall, the composition of the crater's interior and the possibility of past volcanic activity on the floor of the crater at several smaller " dark halo " craters.

It was these formations that the scientific community widely suspected were formed by lunar volcanism ; however, this hypothesis was proven incorrect by the composition of retrieved lunar samples from the mission.

During these trips, the astronauts would visit and provide scientific descriptions of geologic features they were likely to encounter on the surface of the Moon.

As the Apollo 16 spacecraft was not due to arrive in lunar orbit until flight day four, flight days two and three were largely preparatory days, consisting of spacecraft maintenance and scientific research.

His bouquets were painted symmetrically and with scientific accuracy in small dimensions and normally on copper.

For the U. S. Government's scientific enterprise, a significant impact of NAPAP were lessons learned in the assessment process and in environmental research management to a relatively large group of scientists, program managers and the public.

Foremost among the new doubters were the empiricists, the advocates of scientific method, with its emphasis on experimentation and reliance on evidence gathered from sensory experience.

Walcott, led by scientific opinion at the time, attempted to categorise all fossils into living taxa, and as a result, the fossils were regarded as little more than curiosities at the time.

Begun in 1881, her journal ends in 1897 when her artistic and intellectual energies were absorbed in scientific study and in efforts to publish her drawings.

A few observations found in bestiaries, such as the migration of birds, were discounted by the natural philosophers of later centuries, only to be rediscovered in the modern scientific era.

Frederick Seitz, in a June 12, 1996 editorial-page piece in the Wall Street Journal complained that alterations made to Chapter 8 of the 1995 IPCC report were made to " deceive policy makers and the public into believing that the scientific evidence shows human activities are causing global warming.

The earliest pioneers of chemistry and the scientific method, were medieval Arab and Persian scholars.

Most early vector CPUs, such as the Cray-1, were associated almost exclusively with scientific research and cryptography applications.

Cryptozoologists claim there have been cases where species now accepted by the scientific community were initially considered superstition, hoaxes, delusions or misidentifications.

Starting in the 1950s, these precepts were modernized in the People's Republic of China so as to integrate many anatomical and pathological notions with scientific medicine.

Brent documents something Peirce never suspected, namely that his efforts to obtain academic employment, grants, and scientific respectability were repeatedly frustrated by the covert opposition of a major Canadian-American scientist of the day, Simon Newcomb.

The Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 was defended on " scientific or economic principals " while the authors of the Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 were seen as not having had the benefit of reading Malthus.

More scientific censuses were taken 1948 and 1959 where the enumeration unit was persons.

Other complained that the Soviet working class was given too large a role in party organisation ; scientific personnel and other white-collar employees were legally discriminated against.

A study of 1540 US adults found instead that levels of scientific literacy were correlated with the strength of opinion on climate change, but not on which side of the debate that they stood.