The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics, and pragmatics.

When linguists study the lexicon, they consider such things as what constitutes a word ; the word-concept relationship ; lexical access and lexical access failure ; how a word's phonology, syntax, and meaning intersect ; the morphology-word relationship ; vocabulary structure within a given language ; language use ( that is, pragmatics ); language acquisition ; the history and evolution of words ( i. e. etymology ); and the relationships between words, often studied within philosophy of language.

In contrast to phonetics, phonology is the study of how sounds and gestures pattern in and across languages, relating such concerns with other levels and aspects of language.

Nikolai Trubetzkoy in Grundzüge der Phonologie ( 1939 ) defines phonology as " the study of sound pertaining to the system of language ", as opposed to phonetics, which is " the study of sound pertaining to the act of speech " ( the distinction between language and speech being basically Saussure's distinction between langue and parole ).

* Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech sounds.

The contemporary classification of the Polynesian languages began with certain observations by Andrew Pawley in 1966 based on shared innovations in phonology, vocabulary and grammar showing that the East Polynesian languages were more closely related to Samoan than they were to Tongan, calling Tongan and its nearby relative Niuean " Tongic " and Samoan and all other Polynesian languages of the study " Nuclear Polynesian ".

Phones which play the same role are grouped together into classes called phonemes ; the study of these is phonemics or phonematics or phonology.

Klas Bernhard Johannes Karlgren (, 15 October 1889 – 20 October 1978 ) was a Swedish sinologist and linguist who pioneered the study of Chinese historical phonology using modern comparative methods.

He made important contributions to the modern study of Chinese phonology and grammar.

This study includes phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and grammar.

He makes a study of Chinese phonology and of Old Japanese transcribed into Chinese characters by sound.

He made great contributions to the study of Historical Chinese phonology, and is known for his annotated edition of Shuowen Jiezi.

It gives an overview of the classification and distribution of the languages, based on a detailed study of the phonology and vocabulary.

* Syllable rime, term used in the study of phonology in linguistics

The readings of Hán tự, like kanji and hanja, provide valuable data for the study of Middle Chinese and historical Chinese phonology.

It is valuable to the study of Manchu phonology.

Comparative linguistics includes the study of the historical relationships of languages using the comparative method to search for regular ( i. e. recurring ) correspondences between the languages ' phonology, grammar and core vocabulary, and through hypothesis testing ; some persons with little or no specialization in the field sometimes attempt to establish historical associations between languages by noting similarities between them, in a way that is considered pseudoscientific by specialists ( e. g. African / Egyptian comparisons ).

English phonology refers to the sound system ( phonology ) of the English language, or to the study of that system.

Indexicality is often treated as part of the study of language called pragmatics – in contrast to such fields as phonology, syntax, and semantics – in that it concerns the use and effects of language.

* Mathangwane, Joyce T. ( 1999 ) Ikalanga phonetics and phonology: a synchronic and diachronic study.

One such study believes English Romani speakers gradually lost its distinctive syntax, phonology and morphology.

Contributions to the study of Manx phonology, University of Edinburgh Linguistic Survey of Scotland Series.

At a meeting in August 2006 with members of the Rwanda Patriotic Front, Wu Guanzheng, of the Communist Party of China, confirmed the intention of the People's Republic of China to fund a study into the feasibility of constructing a railway connecting at Isaka with the existing Tanzanian railway network, and running via Kigali in Rwanda through to Burundi.

Not all of the stars of Centaurus can be seen from China, and the unseen stars were classified among the Southern Asterisms by Xu Guangqi, based on his study of western star charts.

Chiang sent Muslim students abroad to study at places like Al Azhar and Muslim schools throughout China taught loyalty to his regime.

According to one study, in deforested north and northwest China, the average annual precipitation decreased by one third between the 1950s and the 1980s.

According to Robert K. G. Temple, the study of endocrinology began in China.

The study of magnetism in Ancient China dates back to the 4th century BCE.

" The prize was accompanied by a US $ 100, 000 award, which Pei used to create a scholarship for Chinese students to study architecture in the US, on the condition that they return to China to work.

Members of the Okinawan upper classes were sent to China regularly to study various political and practical disciplines.

A feasibility study started in November 2009 for a line connecting Havelian 750 km ( 466 mi ) away in Pakistan and Kashgar 350 km ( 217 mi ) in China.

He initially wanted to do missionary work in China ; when this was denied him, went on in 1935 to study linguistics with Summer Institute of Linguistics ( S. I. L .).

On 12 August 1921, the League was asked to settle the matter ; the Council created a commission with representatives from Belgium, Brazil, China and Spain to study the situation.

The Communist Party of China was founded by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao in the French concession of Shanghai in 1921 as a study society and an informal network.

However, a study of uranium / lead ratios of zircons from rock sequences in multiple locations in southern China date the extinction to 252. 28 ± 0. 08 Ma ; an earlier study of rock sequences near Meishan in Changxing County of Zhejiang Province, China date the extinction to 251. 4 ± 0. 3 Ma, with an ongoing elevated extinction rate occurring for some time thereafter.

* Islam in China, Hui and Uyghurs: between modernization and sinicization, the study of the Hui and Uyghurs of China, Jean A. Berlie, White Lotus Press editor, Bangkok, Thailand, published in 2004.

A 2006 study done by Cornell researchers, the Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy and the Chinese Academy of Science on Bt cotton farming in China found that after seven years these secondary pests that were normally controlled by pesticide had increased, necessitating the use of pesticides at similar levels to non-Bt cotton and causing less profit for farmers because of the extra expense of GM seeds.

The study was based on records from 227 farms in Thailand, Vietnam, Nepal, India, China, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.

Efforts have been made by Chinese entrepreneurs to satisfy increasing demand for turtle meat as gourmet food and traditional medicine with farmed turtles, instead of wild-caught ones ; according to a study published in 2007, over a thousand turtle farms operated in China.

A study at the Wolong Reserve in China revealed how adaptable their hunting behaviour is.

As a result of its growing economy and large population, more middle-class families from China are able to afford American college tuition, bringing an influx of Chinese students to study abroad in the United States.

* China, United States, India, Brazil and Mexico will be the largest economies in the world, according to a Goldman Sachs study.