,,,, or,, or sometimes simply ) were the outcome of the growth of the feudal system from the 8th century onwards.

The Senate approved on it 27 and 29 June, favouring 14 July against 4 August ( honouring the end of the feudal system on 4 August 1789 ).

This was problematic, as the patroon system of land holding, based on the feudal system and civil law, continued to operate in the colony until it was abolished in the mid-19th century.

This was most clearly seen in the feudal system, where a lord was expected to enter combat armored and on horseback and bring with him an entourage of peasants on foot.

On 16 June, Dewar set out the legislative programme for the Executive which included: an Education bill to improve standards in Scottish schools ; land reform to give right of access to the countryside, a bill to abolish the feudal system of land tenure ; and a bill to establish National Parks in Scotland.

The area surrounding the castle ( known as the Yamanote ) consisted largely of daimyō ( feudal lords ') mansions, whose families lived in Edo as part of the sankin kōtai system ; the daimyō made journeys in alternating years to Edo, and used the mansions for their entourages.

Since at least the 1960s, when Marc Bloch's Feudal Society ( 1939 ) was first translated into English in 1961, many medieval historians have included a broader social aspect that includes not only the nobility but all three estates of the realm, adding the peasantry bonds of manorialism and the estates of the Church ; this is sometimes referred to as " feudal society " since it encompasses all members of society into the feudal system.

In the 18th century Adam Smith popularized the forms " feudal government " and " feudal system " in his book Wealth of Nations ( 1776 ).

Adam Smith used the term " feudal system " to describe a social and economic system defined by inherited social ranks, each of which possessed inherent social and economic privileges and obligations.

The Ethiopian army only had a feudal system of organization, but could absolutely execute the strategic plan of Menelik's headquarters.

The Visigoths inherited from Late Antiquity a sort of feudal system in Spain, based in the south on the Roman villa system and in the north drawing on their vassals to supply troops in exchange for protection.

This system, known as the corvée, originated in the unpaid labor that French peasants provided to their feudal lords.

Members of the Anglo-Norman nobility took up places in the Scottish aristocracy and he introduced a system of feudal land tenure, which produced knight service, castles and an available body of heavily armed cavalry.

The Unification of Italy in 1861-70 broke down the feudal land system that had survived in the South since Middle Ages, especially where land had been the inalienable property of aristocrats, religious bodies, or the king.

English kings had widespread feudal rights which could be used to generate income, including the scutage system, in which feudal military service was avoided by a cash payment to the king.

To achieve this, John reformed the English feudal contribution to his campaigns, creating a more flexible system under which only one knight in ten would actually be mobilised, but would be financially supported by the other nine ; knights would serve for an indefinite period.

Agricultural production was regulated by the iqta, a Muslim system of land ownership and payments roughly ( though far from exactly ) equivalent to the feudal system of Europe, and this system was not heavily disrupted by the crusaders.

Essentially this imposed two conditions: First, international law had to recognize and be compatible with an international political system in which a number of states were competitive, suspicious, and opportunistic in their political alignments with one another ; ;

that is, from aspects of a universal system of Justice into particular rules governing the relations of sovereign states.

`` Billions of American dollars, not only from capital investors but also from the pockets of U.S. taxpayers '', this author states, `` are being poured into South Africa to support a system dedicated to the oppression, the persecution, and the almost diabolical exploitation of 12 million people the color of whose skins happens not to be white ''.

Ten thousand twisty miles of shoreline frame the 30-odd lakes in the vast Tennessee River system that loops in and out of seven states.

The Declaration announced the states ' entry into the international system ; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states ; and the Articles of Confederation, which established “ a firm league ” among the thirteen free and independent states, constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for the conduct of vital domestic and foreign affairs.

In a few states, a different system of insuring title of real properties provides for registration of a clear title with public authorities.

This ensures that ΔG and ΔH are nearly the same over a considerable range of temperatures and justifies the approximate empirical Principle of Thomsen and Berthelot, which states that the equilibrium state to which a system proceeds is the one which evolves the greatest amount of heat, i. e. an actual process is the most exothermic one.

Therefore no complete system, i. e. including the electromagnetic modes, can have negative temperatures, since there is no highest energy state, so that the sum of the probabilities of the states would diverge for negative temperatures.

124-126 .</ ref > While other philosophers also recognized such transitions in states of matter, Anaximenes was the first to associate the quality pairs hot / dry and cold / wet with the density of a single material and add a quantitative dimension to the Milesian monistic system .< ref > Kirk, G. S., J. E.

For bridged alkenes, the Bredt's rule states that a double bond cannot be placed at the bridgehead of a bridged ring system, unless the rings are large enough.

The law of conservation of angular momentum states that when no external torque acts on an object or a closed system of objects, no change of angular momentum can occur.

In chemistry, physics, and mathematics, the Boltzmann distribution ( also called the Gibbs Distribution ) is a certain distribution function or probability measure for the distribution of the states of a system.

An attempt by the French government to incorporate the independent Breton-language immersion schools ( called Diwan ) into the state education system was blocked by the French Constitutional Council on the grounds that, as the 1992 amendment to the Constitution of the 5th Republic states that French is the language of the Republic, no other language may be used as a language of instruction in state schools.

By default, the system state will be in either of the minima states, because that corresponds to the state of lowest energy.

For most purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U. S. federal system and most states, have merged the two courts.

Uniquely among U. S. states, Louisiana uses a codified system, the Louisiana Civil Code, based on principles of law from continental Europe instead of common law.

The reason for the enactment of the codes in California in the 19th century was to replace a pre-existing system based on Spanish civil law with a system based on common law, similar to that in most other states.

The United States federal government ( as opposed to the states ) has a variant on a common law system.

The second noteworthy characteristic is that the country borders on very different parts of the African continent: North Africa, with its Islamic culture and economic orientation toward the Mediterranean Basin ; West Africa, with its diverse religions and cultures and its history of highly developed states and regional economies ; Northeast Africa, oriented toward the Nile Valley and Red Sea region ; and Central or Equatorial Africa, some of whose people have retained classical African religions while others have adopted Christianity, and whose economies were part of the great Congo River system.

( see figure ) The effect was observed to be independent of parameters such as the system size and impurities, and in 1981, theorist Robert Laughlin proposed a theory describing the integer states in terms of a topological invariant called the Chern number.

Goldstone's theorem in quantum field theory states that in a system with broken continuous symmetry, there may exist excitations with arbitrarily low energy, called the Goldstone bosons.

In particular, quantum phase transitions refer to transitions where the temperature is set to zero, and the phases of the system refer to distinct ground states of the Hamiltonian.

The high cost of land and a few operational problems resulting from excessive loadings have created the need for a wastewater treatment system with the operational characteristics of the oxidation pond but with the ability to treat more organic matter per unit volume.

In the 1960s linguist William Stokoe created the first writing system for a sign language, the so-called Stokoe notation, which he designed specifically for ASL.

He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed networks of roads with an official courier system, established a standing army, established the Praetorian Guard, created official police and fire-fighting services for Rome, and rebuilt much of the City during his reign.

* 1903 – Arpad Elo, American chess player, created the Elo rating system ( d. 1992 )

Early Buddhist philosophers and exegetes of the Sarvāstivādins created a pluralist metaphysical and phenomenological system, in which all experiences of people, things and events can be broken down into smaller and smaller perceptual or perceptual-ontological units called " dharmas ".

Kante created N ’ Ko in response to what he felt were beliefs that Africans were a " cultureless people " since prior to this time there had been no indigenous African writing system for his language.

The Bastard Operator From Hell ( BOFH ), a fictional character created by Simon Travaglia, is a rogue system administrator who takes out his anger on users ( often referred to as lusers ), colleagues, bosses, and anyone else who gets in his way.

The Bliss bibliographic classification ( BC ) is a library classification system that was created by Henry E. Bliss ( 1870 – 1955 ), published in four volumes between 1940 and 1953.

The mechanics of the role-playing game system were created specifically for Bunnies & Burrows, common at the time of its original publishing.

Cuban-exiled architect Enrique Gutierrez created a building that was hurricane-proof, using a system of steel cables and pulleys which allow the building to move slightly in the event of a strong shock.

Central banks often have requirements for the quality of assets that may be held by financial institutions ; these requirements may act as a limit on the amount of risk and leverage created by the financial system.

Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to record rather than an actual decrease ; others such as Timothy Brook argue that the Mongols created a system of enserfment among a huge portion of the Chinese populace, causing many to disappear from the census altogether ; other historians like William McNeill and David Morgan argue that the Bubonic Plague was the main factor behind the demographic decline during this period.

The government he led put in place the post-war settlement, based upon the assumption that full employment would be maintained by Keynesian policies, and that a greatly enlarged system of social services would be created – aspirations that had been outlined in the wartime Beveridge Report.

Oceanic crust is created at spreading centers, and this, along with subduction, drives the system of plates in a chaotic manner, resulting in continuous orogeny and areas of isostatic imbalance.

: Plotted on the x-axis is the retention time and plotted on the y-axis a signal ( for example obtained by a spectrophotometer, mass spectrometer or a variety of other detectors ) corresponding to the response created by the analytes exiting the system.

The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act created a federal system, in which power is divided between the federal, or national, government and the States — the evolved status of the colonies.

The chief advocate and driving force for improving public health in Chicago was Dr. John H. Rauch, M. D., who established a plan for Chicago's park system in 1866, created Lincoln Park by closing a cemetery filled with festering, shallow graves, and helped establish a new Chicago Board of Health in 1867 in response to an outbreak of cholera.

The royalty created a system of warrior nobility to preserve their kingdom.

Ryzhkov, in retrospect, claimed that the Soviet system had " created, nursed and formed " Gorbachev, but that " long ago Gorbachev had internally rebelled against the native System.

In 1961, Governor Nelson Rockefeller signed the bill that formally created the City University of New York to integrate these institutions, and a new graduate school, together into a coordinate system of higher education for the city, and by 1979, the Board of Higher Education had become the Board of Trustees of the CUNY.

The Dewey Decimal Classification ( DDC ), or Dewey Decimal System, is a proprietary library classification system created by Melvil Dewey in 1876.

This system was originally created for use with the Middle Indic languages, which have a very limited number of clusters ( the only clusters allowed are geminate consonants and clusters involving homorganic nasal stops ).

The Dual Alliance was a defensive alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, which was created by treaty on October 7, 1879 as part of Bismarck's system of alliances to prevent / limit war.

Finally, he created a system of provincial governorates different from old tribal boundaries.