Political and economic relations were drastically influenced by these theories as the concept of the guild was subordinated to the theory of free trade, and Roman Catholic dominance of theology was increasingly challenged by Protestant churches subordinate to each nation-state, which also ( in a fashion the Roman Catholic Church often decried angrily ) preached in the vulgar or native language of each region.

A modern theory of interest is that the Cagots are the descendents of a fallen medieval guild of carpenters.

In theory an Old Master should be an artist who was fully trained, was a Master of his local artists ' guild, and worked independently, but in practice paintings considered to be produced by pupils or workshops will be included in the scope of the term.

Although Utopian communism is both new in 1516 and also modern, it is not modern communism or even modern socialism, as they exist or have ever existed in theory or in practice.

In 1933, Stalin put forward the theory of aggravation of the class struggle along with the development of socialism, arguing that the further the country would move forward, the more acute forms of struggle will be used by the doomed remnants of exploiter classes in their last desperate effortsand that, therefore, political repression was necessary.

In Marxist philosophy, Leninism is the body of political theory for the democratic organisation of a revolutionary vanguard party, and the achievement of a direct-democracy dictatorship of the proletariat, as political prelude to the establishment of socialism.

It was Bukharin who formulated the thesis of " Socialism in One Country " put forth by Stalin in 1924, which argued that socialism ( in Marxist theory, the transitional stage from capitalism to communism ) could be developed in a single country, even one as underdeveloped as Russia.

This new theory stated that revolution need no longer be encouraged in the capitalist countries since Russia could and should achieve socialism alone.

Furthermore, the labor theory of value popularized by classical economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo were utilized by a new ideology called socialism to critique the relations of property to other economic issues, such as profit, rent, interest, and wage-labor.

Leninist theory postulates that, with the strongly determined will of the Bourgeoisie to establish Imperialism, socialism will not arise spontaneously through the natural decay of capitalism, and that workers by themselves, who may be more or less sedated by reactionary propaganda, are unable to effectively organise and develop socialist consciousness, therefore requiring the leadership of a revolutionary vanguard organized on the basis of democratic centralism.

" After Lenin's death in January 1924, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union – then increasingly under the control of Joseph Stalin – rejected the theory that socialism could not be built solely in the Soviet Union, in favour of the concept of Socialism in One Country.

As Christiano states, " Marx did not believe in science for science's sake … he believed that he was also advancing a theory that would … be a useful tool … effecting a revolutionary upheaval of the capitalist system in favor of socialism.

* The theory of aggravation of the class struggle along with the development of socialism, a theoretical base supporting the repression of political opponents as necessary.

It may variously be examined as ( 1 ) a polemic against the optimistic scientific socialism of H. G. Wells whose works Zamyatin had previously published and with the heroic verses of the ( Russian ) Proletarian Poets, ( 2 ) as an example of Expressionist theory and ( 3 ) as an illustration of the archetype theories of Carl Jung as applied to literature.

Contemporary models of market socialism are based on neoclassical economic theory beginning in the early twentieth century.

Another form of market socialism was promoted by critics of central planning and general equilibrium theory, the most notable economists being Alec Nove and Janos Kornai.

An important base for the first definition of market socialism in economic theory is the Lange Model, which states that an economy in which all production is performed by the state, but in which there is a functioning price mechanism, has similar properties to a market economy under perfect competition, in that it achieves Pareto efficiency.

Karl Marx is often heralded as a founder of socialism and his studies have provided a basis for much in socialist theory and research.

Dietzgen sparingly used the theory to explain the nature of socialism and social development, but was not academically studied until the Soviet Union indoctrinated the philosophy as Marxist.

The theory of Permanent Revolution addressed the question of how such feudal regimes were to be overthrown, and how socialism could be established given the lack of economic prerequisites.

This theory was advanced in opposition to the view held by the Stalinists that " socialism in one country " could be built in the Soviet Union alone.

Stalin's theory of socialism in one country was developed in 1924 as an opposition to Trotsky's Theory of Permanent Revolution, which argued that capitalism was a world system and required a world revolution in order to replace it with socialism.

He had become increasingly interested in socialism and Marxism, reading the works of the prominent Marxist theoreticians Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, as well as the works of philosopher G. W. F. Hegel, whose ideas on dialectical materialism had been hugely influential on Marxist theory.

The actions of the Soviet government alienated Childe, who lost his formerly firm faith in Joseph Stalin's administration, but not his belief in socialism and Marxist theory.

Trotsky was also denounced for his theory of permanent revolution which contradicted Stalin's position that socialism could be built in one country, Russia, without a worldwide revolution.

That such deficiencies existed within Ptolemy's theory was not discovered de novo by Copernicus.

A credulousness, a distaste for documentation, an uncritical reliance on contemporary accounts, and a proneness to assume a theory as true before adequate proof was provided were all evidences of his failure to comprehend the use of the scientific method or to evaluate the responsibilities of the historian to his reading public.

J. T. Shotwell was appalled by such spurious history as that which attributed the fall of the Carolingian empire to the woolen trade, and he urged Adams to `` transform his essay into a real history, embodying not merely those facts which fit into his theory, but also the modifications and exceptions ''.

that theory was and is sound.

He proposed a fresh theory of alkalis which later was accepted in chemical practices.

It was not always easy to develop theory and doctrine which would square the two conditions.

In this connection, it might be noted that the theory of games was a mathematical discovery long before its uses in political science were exploited.

To find a place for them in their theory of knowledge would require them to revise the theory radically, and yet that theory was what they regarded as their most important discovery.

On the theory before us, such relief would be groundless, for in that suffering itself there was nothing bad at all, and hence in its nonoccurrence there would be nothing to be relieved about.

In these circumstances, since what was expressed by the remark when first made is, on the theory before us, simply absent, the remark now expresses nothing.

( P. 215 ) when corporate abuses were attacked, it was done on the theory that criminal penalties would be invoked rather than control.

Lincoln stated Douglas's popular sovereignty theory was a threat to the nation's morality and that Douglas represented a conspiracy to extend slavery to free states.

During the 1670s corpuscularianism was used by Isaac Newton in his development of the corpuscular theory of light.

( Despite common belief, he did not take a day from February ; see the debunked theory on month lengths ) According to a Senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, he chose this month because it was the time of several of his great triumphs, including the conquest of Egypt.

" Karpov acknowledged that his understanding of chess theory was very confused at that time, and wrote later that the homework which Botvinnik assigned greatly helped him, since it required that he consult chess books and work diligently.

" The first well-known version of anarcho-capitalism was formulated by Austrian School economist and libertarian Murray Rothbard in the mid-twentieth century, synthesizing elements from the Austrian School of economics, classical liberalism, and nineteenth century American individualist anarchists Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker ( rejecting their labor theory of value and the normative implications they derived from it ).

The prime evidence for this theory was provided by a descendant of Clarke.

It was the prospect of bowling at this line-up that caused England's 1932 – 33 captain Douglas Jardine to adopt the tactic of fast leg theory, also known as Bodyline.

Jardine insisted that the tactic was legitimate and called it " leg theory " but it was widely disparaged by its opponents, who dubbed it " Bodyline " ( from " on the line of the body ").

Confucianism was particularly strong during the Han Dynasty, whose greatest thinker was Dong Zhongshu, who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu School and the theory of the Five Elements.

At the beginning, it was considered a sort of Taoist sect, and there was even a theory about Laozi, founder of Taoism, who went to India and taught his philosophy to Buddha.