His key contributions include topological tensor products of topological vector spaces, the theory of nuclear spaces as foundational for Schwartz distributions, and the application of L < sup > p </ sup > spaces in studying linear maps between topological vector spaces.

This was based on lack of intelligence information and reflected the American nuclear warfare theory and military doctrines.

The theory is also used in nuclear physics to describe the pairing interaction between nucleons in an atomic nucleus.

According to physicist Phil Anderson, the term was coined by himself and Volker Heine when they changed the name of their group at the Cavendish Laboratories, Cambridge from " Solid state theory " to " Theory of Condensed Matter ", as they felt it did not exclude their interests in the study of liquids, nuclear matter and so on.

The general concept of a chemical reaction has been extended to non-chemical reactions between entities smaller than atoms, including nuclear reactions, radioactive decays, and reactions between elementary particles as described by quantum field theory.

For example, in the 19th century, the Sun appeared to be no more than 20 million years old, but the Earth appeared to be no less than 300 million years ( resolved by the discovery of nuclear fusion and radioactivity, and the theory of quantum mechanics ); or current attempts to resolve theoretical differences between quantum mechanics and general relativity.

Researchers in molecular and evolutionary biology no longer question this theory, although some of the details, such as the mechanisms for loss of genes from organelles to host nuclear genomes, are still being worked out.

Enrico Fermi (; 29 September 1901 – 28 November 1954 ) was an Italian physicist, naturalized American later in his life, particularly known for his work on the development of the first nuclear reactor, Chicago Pile-1, and for his contributions to the development of quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics.

That theory refined Ernest Rutherford's and Antonius Van den Broek's model, which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges that is equal to its ( atomic ) number in the periodic table.

In the early days of nuclear magnetic resonance he studied the underlying theory, and in 1959 he coauthored the text book High Resolution Nuclear Magnetic Resonance with W. G.

Alexandru Proca was the first to develop and report the massive vector boson field equations and a theory of the mesonic field of nuclear forces.

In addition, the authors of the 2007 study above state that " because of the use of the term ' nuclear autumn ' by Thompson and Schneider, even though the authors made clear that the climatic consequences would be large, in policy circles the theory of nuclear winter is considered by some to have been exaggerated and disproved Martin, 1988.

File: Enrico Fermi 1943-49. jpg | Enrico Fermi ( 1901-1954 ): developed first nuclear reactor ( Chicago Pile-1 ), contributed to quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics, awarded the 1938 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on induced radioactivity.

‪ File: Wheeler, John-Archibald 1963 Kopenhagen. jpg ‬‬| John Wheeler ( 1911-2008 ): revived interest in general relativity in the United States after World War II, worked with Niels Bohr to explain principles of nuclear fission, tried to achieve Einstein ’ s vision of a unified field theory, coined the terms black hole, quantum foam, wormhole, and the phrase “ it from bit ”.

The quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is called quantum chromodynamics, and describes the interactions of subnuclear particles such as quarks and gluons.

The weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force were unified, in their quantized forms, into a single quantum field theory ( known as electroweak theory ), by the physicists Abdus Salam, Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg.

Quantum electrodynamics ( or " quantum electromagnetism "), which is currently ( in the perturbative regime at least ) the most accurately tested physical theory, < sup >( blog )</ sup > has been successfully merged with the weak nuclear force into the electroweak force and work is currently being done to merge the electroweak and strong force into the electrostrong force.

Research on this equivalence has led to new insights on quantum chromodynamics, the fundamental theory of the strong nuclear force.

The satellites would be powered by built-in nuclear warheads – in theory, the energy from the warhead detonation would be used to pump a series of laser emitters in the missiles or satellites, allowing each satellite to shoot down many incoming warheads simultaneously.

This theory rapidly became a significant and necessary tool for theorists and experimentalists in the new fields of atomic physics, nuclear physics, and quantum mechanics.

Over time, the term stuck in popularizations of quantum physics to describe a theory that would unify or explain through a single model the theories of all fundamental interactions and of all particles of nature: general relativity for gravitation, and the standard model of elementary particle physics — which includes quantum mechanics — for electromagnetism, the two nuclear interactions, and the known elementary particles.

Powell claimed that the debate was now more political than military ; that Britain did not possess an independent deterrent and that through NATO Britain was tied to the nuclear deterrence theory of the United States.

Assured destruction is a concept sometimes used in deterrence theory and military strategy discussions to describe a condition where certain behaviors or choices are deterred because they will lead to the imposition by others of overwhelming punitive consequences.

In nuclear strategy, minimal deterrence ( also called minimum deterrence ) is an application of deterrence theory in which a state possesses no more nuclear weapons than is necessary to deter an adversary from attacking.

It is based on the theory of deterrence according to which the deployment, and implicit menace of use, of strong weapons is essential to threaten the enemy in order to prevent the use by said-enemy of the same weapons against oneself.

The use of sanctions, which can be either positive ( rewarding ) or negative ( punishment ) is the basis of all criminal theory, along with the main goals of social control, and deterrence of deviant behavior.

Although most consider that this mindset usefully served to prevent an attack by either country, the assumptions underlying deterrence theory have made assessments of the efficacy of the Cold War mindset a matter of some controversy.

His need to provide a liberal justification for criminal law practice thus lead him to moral philosophy, and to the development of an original " consensual " theory of punishment which combined the merits of the retributive and utilitarian ( see deterrence ) varieties while avoiding their respective difficulties Similarly, the problems presented by the characterization of criminal conduct stimulated his work in the field of philosophy of action.

Analyzing strategy, Schlesinger maintained that the theory and practice of the 1950s and 1960s had been overtaken by events, particularly the rise of the Soviet Union to virtual nuclear parity with the United States and the effect this development had on the concept of deterrence.

Deterrence theory argues that the amount of punishment should be the minimum required to achieve the desired amount of deterrence.

Thomas Schelling goes on to explain the foundations of deterrence theory based on diplomacy.

It can therefore be summarised that the use of the power to hurt as bargaining power is the foundation of deterrence theory, and is most successful when it is held in reserve.

More recent scholarship has made the case that deterrence theory is logically inconsistent, not empirically accurate and deficient as a theory.

Research has predominantly focused on the theory of rational deterrence to analyse the conditions under which conventional deterrence is likely to succeed or fail.

Alternative theories however have challenged the rational deterrence theory and have focused on organisational theory and cognitive psychology.

The predominant approach to theorizing about deterrence has entailed the use of rational choice and game-theoretic models of decision making ( see game theory ).

Huth goes on to explain the four key factors for consideration under rational deterrence theory being ( i ) the military balance ; ( ii ) signaling and bargaining power ; ( iii ) reputations for resolve ; and ( iv ) interests at stake.

Although costly signaling and bargaining power are more well established arguments in rational deterrence theory, the interests of defending states are not as well known, and attacking states may look beyond the short term bargaining tactics of a defending state and seek to determine what interests are at stake for the defending state that would justify the risks of a military conflict.

Furthermore, Huth argues that both supporters and critics of rational deterrence theory agree that an unfavourable assessment of the domestic and international status quo by state leaders can undermine or severely test the success of deterrence.

Thus, theory and doctrine applicable among the great nations and the smaller European states did not really comfortably fit less developed and less powerful societies elsewhere.

Lincoln stated Douglas's popular sovereignty theory was a threat to the nation's morality and that Douglas represented a conspiracy to extend slavery to free states.

*: The article on Whorf states " Drawing on Nietzsche's ideas of perspectivism Alfred Korzybski developed the theory of general semantics which has been compared to Whorf's notions of linguistic relativity.

The cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that all cells come from preexisting cells, that vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and that all cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells.

The BCS theory gives an expression that shows how the gap grows with the strength of the attractive interaction and the ( normal phase ) single particle density of states at the Fermi energy.

BCS theory relates the value of the critical field at zero temperature to the value of the transition temperature and the density of states at the Fermi energy.

Naveh states, " The striking feature of the blitzkrieg concept is the complete absence of a coherent theory which should have served as the general cognitive basis for the actual conduct of operations ".

The simplest is Arrhenius theory, which states than an acid is a substance that produces hydronium ions when it is dissolved in water, and a base is one that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in water.

( see figure ) The effect was observed to be independent of parameters such as the system size and impurities, and in 1981, theorist Robert Laughlin proposed a theory describing the integer states in terms of a topological invariant called the Chern number.

Goldstone's theorem in quantum field theory states that in a system with broken continuous symmetry, there may exist excitations with arbitrarily low energy, called the Goldstone bosons.

His theory states that depressed people think the way they do because their thinking is biased towards negative interpretations.

In its early days, this theory was most strongly associated with the states of Yan and Qi.

The Big Bang theory states that it is the point in which all dimensions came into existence, the start of both space and time.

The theory also has a strong orientalist bent which regards all Asian states as generally the same.

While the Politburo theory states indirectly that the Party Congress is a non-important process, another theory, the circular-flow-of-power theory assumed that the General Secretary was able to build a power base among the party's regional secretaries.

Though in theory subject directly to the pope, these rulers had been practically independent or dependent on other states for generations.

This is a result of his personality theory, which states that everyone exists in a constantly changing world of experience in which he or she is the center.

There is a Trotskyist theory of permanent arms economy, put forward by Michael Kidron, which leads on from the contention that war and accompanying industrialisation is a continuing feature of capitalist states and that central planning and other features of the war economy are ever present.

The currently accepted theory states that the brain cells adjust their osmolarities by changing levels of certain osmolytes like inositol, betaine, and glutamine.

A similar defense comes from Australian Philosopher Frank Jackson ( born 1943 ) who revived the theory of Epiphenomenalism which argues that mental states do not play a role in physical states.

In 1926 von Neuman showed that if atomic states were understood as vectors in Hilbert space, then they would correspond with both Schrödinger's wave function theory and Heisenberg's matrices.

In other words, this theory states that a true belief counts as knowledge only if it is produced by a reliable belief-forming process.