Following the work on expected utility theory of Ramsey and von Neumann, decision-theorists have accounted for rational behavior using a probability distribution for the agent.

In mathematics, the Bernoulli numbers B < sub > n </ sub > are a sequence of rational numbers with deep connections to number theory.

The set of constructible numbers can be completely characterized in the language of field theory: the constructible numbers form the quadratic closure of the rational numbers: the smallest field extension of which is closed under square root and complex conjugation.

Other broad distinctions include those between positive economics ( describing " what is ") and normative economics ( advocating " what ought to be "); between economic theory and applied economics ; between rational and behavioral economics ; and between mainstream economics ( more " orthodox " and dealing with the " rationality-individualism-equilibrium nexus ") and heterodox economics ( more " radical " and dealing with the " institutions-history-social structure nexus ").

It includes Friedman's permanent income hypothesis view on consumption, the " rational expectations revolution " spearheaded by Robert Lucas, and real business cycle theory.

Classical analog filters are IIR filters, and classical filter theory centers on the determination of transfer functions given by low order rational functions, which can be synthesized using the same small number of reactive components.

It essentially explores how rational investors would apply decision theory to the problem of investment.

According to modern portfolio theory, rational investors will seek to hold portfolios that are mean / variance efficient ( that is, portfolios offer the highest level of return per unit of risk, and the lowest level of risk per unit of return ).

Braid therefore revised the theory and practice of Mesmerism and developed his own method of " hypnotism " as a more rational and " common sense " alternative.

" The theory was indebted to Aristotle's pluralism and his concepts of Soul, the rational, living aspect of a living substance which cannot exist apart from the body because it is not a substance but an essence, and nous, rational thought, reflection and understanding.

" He summarizes his rejection of the theory that Blacks are genetically inferior to Whites by stating that " Nothing at present coerces rational belief.

So " In the theory of the revolution " of anarcho-communism as elaborated by Peter Kropotkin and others " it is the risen people who are the real agent and not the working class organised in the enterprise ( the cells of the capitalist mode of production ) and seeking to assert itself as labour power, as a more ' rational ' industrial body or social brain ( manager ) than the employers.

There are exceptions within subjectivism however, such as ideal observer theory, which implies that moral facts may be known through a rational process, and individualist ethical subjectivism, which holds that moral facts are merely personal opinions and so may be known only through introspection.

His close friend George Stigler explained, " As is customary in science, he did not win a full victory, in part because research was directed along different lines by the theory of rational expectations, a newer approach developed by Robert Lucas, also at the University of Chicago.

Neoclassical economics is a term variously used for approaches to economics focusing on the determination of prices, outputs, and income distributions in markets through supply and demand, often mediated through a hypothesized maximization of utility by income-constrained individuals and of profits by cost-constrained firms employing available information and factors of production, in accordance with rational choice theory.

This model conforms to social learning theory or differential association in that there are clear associations and interaction between criminals where knowledge may be shared, or values enforced, however it is argued that rational choice is not represented in this.

The philosopher Alvin Plantinga has shifted his focus to justifying belief in God ( that is, those who believe in God, for whatever reasons, are rational in doing so ) through Reformed epistemology, in the context of a theory of warrant and proper cognitive function.

Much academic debate regarded one or both of two pragmatic topics: how ( or whether ) to apply utilitarianism to problems of political policy, or how ( or whether ) to apply economic models ( such as rational choice theory ) to political issues.

Approaches include positivism, interpretivism, rational choice theory, behavioralism, structuralism, post-structuralism, realism, institutionalism, and pluralism.

Rational choice theory, also known as choice theory or rational action theory is a framework for understanding and often formally modeling social and economic behavior.

The " rationality " described by rational choice theory is different from the colloquial and most philosophical use of the word.

In rational choice theory, all decisions, crazy or sane, are postulated as mimicking such a " rational " process.

The theory of adaptive expectations can be applied to all previous periods so that current inflationary expectations equal:

This has largely replaced adaptive expectations in macroeconomic theory since its assumption of optimality of expectations is consistent with economic theory.

Thus, while the outcome of any particular hand significantly involves chance, the long-run expectations of the players are determined by their actions chosen on the basis of probability, psychology and game theory.

In cognitive theory, behavior is explained as guided by cognitions ( e. g. expectations ) about the world, especially those about other people.

He and others established a formal definition of social expectations theory, applied to a model to predict that watching television attunes a viewer to social organization patterns of various groups, even if they " have never been members or never will be " ( DeFleur & Ball-Rokeach, 1989 ).

He wrote of his suggestion of a cultural norms theory in 1970, an idea that, in his estimation, " provided the foundation for the more comprehensive social expectations theory " ( DeFleur & Ball-Rokeach, 1989 ).

There is at least one alternative axiomatization of probability theory by means of expectations on C-star algebras of random variables.

Schema theory predicts that information matching prior expectations will be more easily stored and recalled.

The rational expectations assumption is used in many contemporary macroeconomic models, game theory and other applications of rational choice theory.

Rational expectations theory defines this kind of expectations as being identical to the best guess of the future ( the optimal forecast ) that uses all available information.

During the 1970s rational expectations appeared to have made previous macroeconomic theory largely obsolete, which culminated with the Lucas critique.

However, rational expectations theory has been widely adopted throughout modern macroeconomics as a modelling assumption thanks to the work of New Keynesians such as Stanley Fischer.

Rational expectations theory is the basis for the efficient market hypothesis ( efficient market theory ).

In his study Samuel Johnson, Joseph Wood Krutch takes this line when he says that what Aristotle really means by his theory of catharsis is that our evil passions may be so purged by the dramatic ritual that it is `` less likely that we shall indulge them through our own acts ''.

Another theory says that the name " Dada " came during a meeting of the group when a paper knife stuck into a French-German dictionary happened to point to ' dada ', a French word for ' hobbyhorse '.

The third theory says that humans indirectly caused the extinction of diprotodonts, by destroying the ecosystem on which they depended.

He says in this theory that it might have been Archbishop Andreas Sunesøn's personal ecclesiastical banner or perhaps even the flag of Archbishop Absalon, based on his tireless efforts to expand Christianity to the Baltic countries.

He says that the view that mind is an epiphenomenon of brain activity is not consistent with evolutionary theory, because if mind were functionless, it would have disappeared long ago, as it would not have been favoured by evolution.

The well-known historian of physics, C. P. Snow, says about him, " If Fermi had been born a few years earlier, one could well imagine him discovering Rutherford's atomic nucleus, and then developing Bohr's theory of the hydrogen atom.

But the theory refers only to aggregate wealth and says nothing about the distribution of wealth ; in fact there may be significant losers, in particular among the recently protected industries with a comparative disadvantage.

It says that for any first-order theory T with a well-orderable language, and any sentence S in the language of the theory, there is a formal proof of S in T if and only if S is satisfied by every model of T ( S is a semantic consequence of T ).

" Austrian School economist Hans-Hermann Hoppe says that " the 1849 article " The Production of Security " is probably the single most important contribution to the modern theory of anarcho-capitalism.

Electronic band theory ( a branch of physics ) says that a charge will flow if states are available into which electrons can be excited.

The law of retaliation ( lex talionis ) is a military theory of retributive justice, which says that reciprocity should be equal to the wrong suffered ; " life for life, wound for wound, stripe for stripe.

Conquest says that the application of party theory to the Kazakhs, and to a lesser extent to the other nomad peoples, amounted economically to the imposition by force of an untried stereotype on a functioning social order, with disastrous results.

One theory says that Kubla Khan is about poetry and the two sections discuss two types of poems.

The labor theory as an explanation for value contrasts with the subjective theory of value, which says that value of a good is not determined by how much labor was put into it but by its usefulness in satisfying a want and its scarcity.

Standard theory says that, if set above the equilibrium price, more labor will be willing to be provided by workers than will be demanded by employers, creating a surplus of labor, i. e., unemployment.

So the basic theory says that raising the minimum wage helps workers whose wages are raised, and hurts people who are not hired ( or lose their jobs ) because companies cut back on employment.

Minsky says that the biggest source of ideas about the theory came from his work in trying to create a machine that uses a robotic arm, a video camera, and a computer to build with children's blocks.

While proposing the theory, Beck says that his scenario may be regarded as Cumontian in two ways.

An anthropological theory says they descended from the Old Cordilleran Culture, which moved south from the Rocky Mountains and west in Nez Perce lands.

The theory is complicated by the etymology of the name Svafrþorinn ( þorinn meaning " brave " and svafr means " gossip ") ( or possibly connects to sofa " sleep "), which Rudolf Simek says makes little sense when attempting to connect it to Njörðr.

Thomas Gold a professor of astronomy suggested a " garbage theory " for the origin of life, the theory says that life on Earth might have spread from a pile of waste products accidentally dumped on Earth long ago by extraterrestrials.

To use an example from Milton Friedman, if a theory that says that the behavior of the leaves of a tree is explained by their rationality passes the empirical test, it is seen as successful.