Commonly used experimental techniques include spectroscopy, with probes such as X-rays, infrared light and inelastic neutron scattering ; study of thermal response, such as specific heat and measurement of transport via thermal and heat conduction.

Without magnetic anisotropy, the spins in a magnet randomly change direction in response to thermal fluctuations and the magnet is superparamagnetic.

Whether the initial forcing mechanism is internal or external, the response of the climate system might be fast ( e. g., a sudden cooling due to airborne volcanic ash reflecting sunlight ), slow ( e. g. thermal expansion of warming ocean water ), or a combination ( e. g., sudden loss of albedo in the arctic ocean as sea ice melts, followed by more gradual thermal expansion of the water ).

Efficiency can suffer from slow response ( thermal lag ) and heat losses at night.

The terms heavy-weight and light-weight are often used to describe buildings with different thermal mass strategies, and affects the choice of numerical factors used in subsequent calculations to describe their thermal response to heating and cooling.

Lindzen went on to calculate the thermal response of the diurnal tide to ozone and water vapor absorption in detail and showed that when his theoretical developments were included, the surface pressure oscillation was predicted with approximately the magnitude and phase observed, as were most of the features of the diurnal wind oscillations in the mesosphere.

This thermal response of a solid to the application or removal of magnetic fields is maximized when the solid is near its magnetic ordering temperature.

It was subsequently repaired for further experiments, which determined that thermal expansion of the fuel rods and the thick plates supporting the fuel rods was the cause of the unexpected reactor response.

This is small enough for thermal agitation to disperse them evenly within a carrier fluid, and for them to contribute to the overall magnetic response of the fluid.

The fluctuation-dissipation theorem is a general result of statistical thermodynamics that quantifies the relation between the fluctuations in a system at thermal equilibrium and the response of the system to applied perturbations.

* better process control because of a faster response of the system ( e. g. thermal control for exothermic chemical reactions )

* Chromogenic systems change colour in response to electrical, optical or thermal changes.

While metals do become slightly more resistant at higher temperatures, this class of ceramics ( often barium titanate and lead titanate composites ) has a highly nonlinear thermal response, so that it becomes extremely resistant above a composition-dependent threshold temperature.

While lean-burn gas engines offer higher theoretical thermal efficiencies, transient response and performance may be compromised in certain situations.

If a perturbation-such as an increase in greenhouse gases or solar activity-is applied to the climate system the response will not be immediate, principally because of the large heat capacity ( i. e., thermal inertia ) of the oceans.

Neuralgia can be further classified by the type of stimuli that elicits a response: mechanical, thermal, or chemical.

Other variables such as precipitation, cloud cover, heat index, building albedo, and snow cover can also alter a building's thermal response.

The speed of response is limited by the thermal heat capacity divided by the thermal conductance.

The corresponding thermopile of high thermal conductivity surrounds the experimental space within the calorimetric block.

Research within the Department focuses on the chemistry of structure and surfaces of solids ( calorimetric studies, thermal analysis, zeta-potential, electrochemical methods, reaction kinetics ) and didactics of chemistry ( new forms, methods, and means of education in chemistry ).

In structural applications, high flexural rigidity, thermal stability, thermal conductivity and low density ( 1. 85 times that of water ) make beryllium a quality aerospace material for high-speed aircraft, missiles, space vehicles and communication satellites.

Therefore, it works as a neutron reflector and neutron moderator, effectively slowing the neutrons to the thermal energy range of below 0. 03 eV, where the total cross section is at least an order of magnitude lower – exact value strongly depends on the purity and size of the crystallites in the material.

Since diamond has the highest thermal conductivity of any bulk material, layering diamond onto high heat producing electronics ( such as optics and transistors ) allows the diamond to be used as a heat sink.

A strong vacuum inside the bulb does not permit motion, because there are not enough air molecules to cause the air currents that propel the vanes and transfer heat to the outside before both sides of each vane reach thermal equilibrium by heat conduction through the vane material.

A widely used modern instrument is the differential scanning calorimeter, a device which allows thermal data to be obtained on small amounts of material.

Calorimetry requires that the material being heated have known definite thermal constitutive properties.

In particular, diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any bulk material.

where is the density at a reference temperature, is the thermal expansion coefficient of the material.

It may also get dissipated into other microscopic motions within the matter, coming to thermal equilibrium and manifesting itself as thermal energy in the material.

Ionizing electromagnetic radiation creates high-speed electrons in a material and breaks chemical bonds, but after these electrons collide many times with other atoms in the material eventually most of the energy is downgraded to thermal energy ; this whole process happens in a tiny fraction of a second.

Thus, any electromagnetic radiation can " heat " ( in the sense of increase the thermal energy termperature of ) a material, when it is absorbed.

Understanding thermal limitations of materials is essential to using the correct material for the application.

If the temperature rise is too high, thermal motion will destroy the delicate cooperative ordering of the LC phase, pushing the material into a conventional isotropic liquid phase.

Thermotropic mesophases are detected and characterized by two major methods, the original method was use of thermal optical microscopy, in which a small sample of the material was placed between two crossed polarizers ; the sample was then heated and cooled.

The thermal pulse, while being hot enough to ignite flammable material at distance, was short in duration and these fires went out immediately after the flash or were blown out by the blast wave.

Techniques to do this include the process of sputtering, in which an ion beam liberates atoms from a target, allowing them to move through the intervening space and deposit on the desired substrate, and Evaporation ( deposition ), in which a material is evaporated from a target using either heat ( thermal evaporation ) or an electron beam ( e-beam evaporation ) in a vacuum system.

The modern version of a mimeograph, called a digital duplicator, or copyprinter, contains a scanner, a thermal head for stencil cutting, and a large roll of stencil material entirely inside the unit.

* The use of material such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of a building.

Therefore, kyanite is often the preferred material, as it contributes both mechanical strength and, in amounts up to 20 %, significantly reduces thermal expansion.

Although any clay body can be used, white stoneware clay bodies are unsuitable for the western raku process unless some material is added to deal with thermal shock.

For instance, blackbody radiation is due to the thermal motions of atoms and molecules within a material.