In the system shown in Fig. 7-1, the accelerometer output is amplified and the resulting voltage is applied to the gyro output-axis torquer.

RF amplifiers are often specified in terms of the maximum power gain obtainable, while the voltage gain of audio amplifiers and instrumentation amplifiers will be more often specified ( since the amplifier's input impedance will often be much higher than the source impedance, and the load impedance higher than the amplifier's output impedance ).

For example, an audio amplifier with a gain given as 20 dB will have a voltage gain of ten ( but a power gain of 100 would only occur in the event the input and output impedances were identical ).

Small could mean less than 3 dB below ( i. e., power output < 1 / 2 or voltage output < 0. 707 of ) the maximum value, or more rarely 10 dB below, or it could mean below a certain absolute value.

In the very first control relationships, a current output was represented with a voltage control input.

Based on passive cable theory one can track how changes in a neuron ’ s dendritic morphology changes the membrane voltage at the soma, and thus how variation in dendrite architectures affects the overall output characteristics of the neuron.

The gain may be specified as the ratio of output voltage to input voltage ( voltage gain ), output power to input power ( power gain ), or some combination of current, voltage and power.

For example, a transconductance amplifier has a gain with units of conductance ( output current per input voltage ).

The power gain of an amplifier depends on the source and load impedances used as well as its voltage gain ; while an RF amplifier may have its impedances optimized for power transfer, audio and instrumentation amplifiers are normally employed with amplifier input and output impedances optimized for least loading and highest quality.

So an amplifier that is said to have a gain of 20 dB might have a voltage gain of ten times and an available power gain of much more than 20 dB ( 100 times power ratio ), yet be delivering a much lower power gain if, for example, the input is a 600 ohm microphone and the output is a 47 kilohm power amplifier's input socket.

* Piezoelectric audio amplifier includes a DC-to-DC converter to generate the high voltage output required to drive piezoelectric speakers.

Inefficiency comes not just from the fact that the device is always conducting to some extent ( that happens even with class AB, yet its efficiency can be close to that of class B ); it is that the standing current is roughly half the maximum output current ( although this can be less with square law output stage ), together with the problem that a large part of the power supply voltage is developed across the output device at low signal levels ( as with classes AB and B, but unlike output stages such as class D ).

This is used as a reference for comparing the ohmic heating and the electrical energy obtained from the measured current through the element and the measured voltage across the element.

Internally the positively charged cations are flowing away from the anode ( even though it is negative and therefore would be expected to attract them, this is due to electrode potential relative to the electrolyte solution being different for the anode and cathode metal / electrolyte systems ); but, external to the cell in the circuit, electrons are being pushed out through the negative contact and thus through the circuit by the voltage potential as would be expected.

When a positive voltage is applied to anode of the diode from the circuit, more holes are able to be transferred to the depleted region, and this causes the diode to become conductive, allowing current to flow through the circuit.

The lower voltage requirement and higher heat rating selected CPUs that were essentially " cherry picked " from the manufacturing line.

As the ion will travel from the tip at voltage V < sub > 1 </ sub > to some nominal ground potential, the speed at which the ion is travelling can be estimated by the energy transferred into the ion during ( or near ) ionisation.

This form of data manipulation allows for rapid computer visualisation and analysis, with data presented as point cloud data with additional information, such as each ion's mass to charge ( as computed from the velocity equation above ), voltage or other auxiliary measured quantity or computation therefrom.

If an evacuated glass tube is equipped with two electrodes and a voltage is applied, the glass opposite of the negative electrode is observed to glow, due to electrons emitted from and travelling perpendicular to the cathode ( the electrode connected to the negative terminal of the voltage supply ).

Like a typical diode, there is a fixed anode and cathode in a Zener diode, but it will conduct current in the reverse direction ( electrons from anode to cathode ) if its breakdown voltage or " Zener voltage " is exceeded.

Its name comes from the information path in the system: process inputs ( e. g., voltage applied to an electric motor ) have an effect on the process outputs ( e. g., speed or torque of the motor ), which is measured with sensors and processed by the controller ; the result ( the control signal ) is " fed back " as input to the process, closing the loop.

In this example, voltage changes measured at the cell body result from activations of distal synapses propagating to the soma without the aid of voltage-gated ion channels.

For example, diodes are used to regulate voltage ( Zener diodes ), to protect circuits from high voltage surges ( avalanche diodes ), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers ( varactor diodes ), to generate radio frequency oscillations ( tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes ), and to produce light ( light emitting diodes ).

However, electrons are not easily released from the unheated anode surface when the voltage polarity is reversed.

: This term is used both for conventional p – n diodes used to monitor temperature due to their varying forward voltage with temperature, and for Peltier heat pumps for thermoelectric heating and cooling .. Peltier heat pumps may be made from semiconductor, though they do not have any rectifying junctions, they use the differing behaviour of charge carriers in N and P type semiconductor to move heat.

The source of Einstein's proposal that light was composed of particles ( or could act as particles in some circumstances ) was an experimental anomaly not explained by the wave theory was the photoelectric effect, by which light striking a metal surface ejected electrons from the surface, causing an electric current to flow across an applied voltage.

The average voltage at the drain is then equal to the supply voltage, and the signal voltage appearing across the tuned circuit varies from near zero to near twice the supply voltage during the rf cycle.

Electrons flow from the source terminal towards the drain terminal if influenced by an applied voltage.

This has arisen as a result of voltage pulsed atom probes providing good chemical and sufficient spatial information in these materials.

The voltage applied between the electrodes accelerates these low mass particles to high velocities.

The explanation of these effects was that the high voltage accelerated electrically charged atoms ( ions ) naturally present in the air of the tube.

With no obstructions, these low mass particles were accelerated to high velocities by the voltage between the electrodes.

The final preparation procedure involves the in situ removal of these asperities by field evaporation just by raising the tip voltage.

Using inputs such as input voltage, output voltage, output current, frequency, ambient temperature, and inductance these calculators can predict the losses of the inductors core and AC / DC based on the operating condition of the circuit being used.

High voltage insulators for outdoor use are shaped to maximize the length of the leakage path along the surface from one end to the other, called the creepage length, to minimize these leakage currents.

Because of this, these devices are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage ( the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state ).

VCRs, in turn, will react to these excessive voltage pulses by compensating with their automatic gain control circuitry, causing the recorded picture to wildly change brightness, rendering it unwatchable.

Examples of these are thermometers based on the equation of state of a gas, on the velocity of sound in a gas, on the thermal noise ( see Johnson – Nyquist noise ) voltage or current of an electrical resistor, on blackbody radiation, and on the angular anisotropy of gamma ray emission of certain radioactive nuclei in a magnetic field.

Moving-coil instruments are also made with the zero position in the middle of the scale instead of at one end ; these are useful if the voltage reverses its polarity.

In most cases the number of these states is two, and they are represented by two voltage bands: one near a reference value ( typically termed as " ground " or zero volts ) and a value near the supply voltage, corresponding to the " false " (" 0 ") and " true " (" 1 ") values of the Boolean domain respectively.

Operating as switches, each of these components can sustain a blocking voltage of 120 volts in the OFF state, and can conduct a continuous current of 30 amperes in the ON state, dissipating up to about 100 watt s and controlling a load of over 2000 watts.

In a line code, these may be M different voltage levels.

Historically, these very-low-cost power supplies incorporated a simple full-wave rectifier that conducted only when the mains instantaneous voltage exceeded the voltage on the input capacitors.

In these applications thin films of ferroelectric materials are typically used, as this allows the field required to switch the polarization to be achieved with a moderate voltage.

If one input voltage becomes zero, the corresponding base-emitter junction of the multiple-emitter transistor is in parallel with these two junctions.

PP3 ( nine volt ) NiMH batteries are available ; these usually have an output voltage of 8. 4 V ( 1. 2 × 7 ) and a capacity of roughly 200 mA · h.

The terms " voltage " and " electric potential " are a bit ambiguous in that, in practice, they can refer to either of these in different contexts.

If we refer to the probe area including these effects as ( which may be a function of the bias voltage ) and make the assumptions