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Page "Genetically modified organism" ¶ 1
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DNA and is
The order is clearly circumscribed on the basis of DNA sequence analysis, but is difficult to define morphologically, since its members are structurally diverse.
The present understanding of the Apiales is fairly recent and is based upon comparison of DNA sequences by phylogenetic methods.
Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup Y is otherwise found mainly among Nivkhs, and with lower frequency among Tungusic peoples, Koreans, Mongols ( including Kalmyks and Buryats ), Chinese, Japanese, Central Asians, South Siberian Turkic peoples ( e. g. Tuvans, Todjins, Soyots ), Koryaks, Alyutors, Itelmens, Taiwanese aborigines, Filipinos, Indonesians, and Malaysians.
It is now known that each of the A, B, and O alleles is actually a class of multiple alleles with different DNA sequences that produce proteins with identical properties: more than 70 alleles are known at the ABO locus.
An autoantigen is usually a normal protein or complex of proteins ( and sometimes DNA or RNA ) that is recognized by the immune system of patients suffering from a specific autoimmune disease.
# The nuclear envelope becomes discontinuous and the DNA inside it is fragmented in a process referred to as karyorrhexis.
The tumor-suppressor protein p53 accumulates when DNA is damaged due to a chain of biochemical factors.
In this microstructure of DNA is a pair of biopolymers, Polynucleotide s, forming the double helix found in DNA
Despite the study of model plants and increasing use of DNA evidence, there is ongoing work and discussion among taxonomists about how best to classify plants into various taxa.
While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms, molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent revisions along more efficient, evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so.
Bioinformatics is a branch of biological science which deals with the study of methods for storing, retrieving and analyzing biological data, such as nucleic acid ( DNA / RNA ) and protein sequence, structure, function, pathways and genetic interactions.
In the context of genomics, annotation is the process of marking the genes and other biological features in a DNA sequence.
In molecular biology and genetics, the linking between two nitrogenous bases on opposite complementary DNA or certain types of RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds is called a base pair ( often abbreviated bp ).
The size of an individual gene or an organism's entire genome is often measured in base pairs because DNA is usually double-stranded.
A kilobase ( kb ) is a unit of measurement in molecular biology equal to 1000 base pairs of DNA or RNA.
DNA with high GC-content is more stable than DNA with low GC-content, but, contrary to popular belief, the hydrogen bonds do not stabilize the DNA significantly, and stabilization is mainly due to stacking interactions.

DNA and then
3-The mobile plasmid is nicked and a single strand of DNA is then transferred to the recipient cell.
This has been shown in experiments where the pilus are allowed to make contact, but then are denatured with SDS and yet DNA transformation still proceeds.
The transferred DNA can then be integrated into the recipient genome via homologous recombination.
All known forms of life are based on the same fundamental biochemical organisation: genetic information encoded in DNA, transcribed into RNA, through the effect of protein-and RNA-enzymes, then translated into proteins by ( highly similar ) ribosomes, with ATP, NADH and others as energy sources, etc.
Usually DNA damage, if too severe to repair, leads to programmed cell death, but if the programmed cell death pathway is damaged, then the cell cannot prevent itself from becoming a cancer cell.
According to the central dogma of molecular biology, when synthesizing a protein, a gene's DNA is transcribed into mRNA which is then translated into protein.
# From the hairpin loop, a DNA polymerase can then use it as a primer to transcribe a complementary sequence for the ss cDNA.
DNA polymerase then synthesizes a new strand of DNA by extending the 3 ' end of an existing nucleotide chain, adding new nucleotides matched to the template strand one at a time via the creation of phosphodiester bonds.
The 5 ′ end of the nicked strand is transferred to a tyrosine residue on the nuclease and the free 3 ′ OH group is then used by the DNA polymerase for new strand synthesis.
After inducing encystation in E. invadens, DNA replication increases initially and then slows down.
An exon is a sequence of DNA that is expressed ( transcribed ) into RNA and then translated into protein.
Progress in DNA sequencing, specifically mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA ) and then Y-chromosome DNA advanced the understanding of human origins.
Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4 million years ago, first the gorillas, and then the chimpanzees ( genus Pan ) split off from the line leading to the humans ; human DNA is approximately 98. 4 % identical to that of chimpanzees when comparing single nucleotide polymorphisms ( see human evolutionary genetics ).
X-ray crystallography theoretically offered the opportunity to reveal the molecular structure of large molecules like proteins and DNA, but there were serious technical problems then preventing X-ray crystallography from being applicable to such large molecules.
The first transgenic ( genetically modified ) animal was produced by injecting DNA into mouse embryos then implanting the embryos in female mice.
This is accomplished by isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using molecular cloning methods to generate a DNA sequence containing the required genetic elements for expression, and then inserting this construct into the host organism.
In such circumstances then, " genome " describes all of the genes and information on non-coding DNA that have the potential to be present.
The DNA band can also be cut out of the gel, and can then be dissolved to retrieve the purified DNA.
The combined hormone-receptor complex then moves across the nuclear membrane into the nucleus of the cell, where it binds to specific DNA sequences, effectively amplifying or suppressing the action of certain genes, and affecting protein synthesis.
If DNA was the genetic material, then DNA from the labeled phage would have to enter the bacterial cells, and carry the radioactive phosphorus with it.

DNA and transferred
If the F-plasmid that is transferred has previously been integrated into the donor ’ s genome some of the donor ’ s chromosomal DNA may also be transferred with the plasmid DNA.
The amount of chromosomal DNA that is transferred depends on how long the two conjugating bacteria remain in contact.
The lack of < sup > 32 </ sup > P labeled DNA remaining in the solution after the bacteriophages had been allowed to adsorb to the bacteria showed that the phage DNA was transferred into the bacterial cell.
3-The mobile plasmid is nicked and a single strand of DNA is then transferred to the recipient cell.
Typically, the DNA transferred consists of the genes required to make and transfer pili ( often encoded on a plasmid ), and so is a kind of selfish DNA ; however, other pieces of DNA are often co-transferred and this can result in dissemination of genetic traits, such as antibiotic resistance, among a bacterial population.
The resulting DNA fragments are then separated by length through a process known as agarose gel electrophoresis, and transferred to a membrane via the Southern blot procedure.
# The membrane is then baked in a vacuum or regular oven at 80 ° C for 2 hours ( standard conditions ; nitrocellulose or nylon membrane ) or exposed to ultraviolet radiation ( nylon membrane ) to permanently attach the transferred DNA to the membrane.
When ultraviolet rays penetrate the skin and damage DNA, thymidine dinucleotide ( pTpT ) fragments from damaged DNA will trigger melanogenesis and cause the melanocyte to produce melanosomes, which are then transferred by dendrite to the top layer of keratinocytes.
It is thought that over millennia these endosymbionts transferred some of their own DNA to the host cell's nucleus during the evolutionary transition from a symbiotic community to an instituted eukaryotic cell ( called " serial endosymbiosis ").
In the cells of extant organisms, the vast majority of the proteins present in the mitochondria ( numbering approximately 1500 different types in mammals ) are coded for by nuclear DNA, but the genes for some of them, if not most, are thought to have originally been of bacterial origin, having since been transferred to the eukaryotic nucleus during evolution.
Spindle transfer, where the nuclear DNA is transferred to another healthy egg cell leaving the defective mitochondrial DNA behind, is a potential treatment procedure that has been successfully carried out on monkeys.
3-The mobile plasmid is nicked and a single strand of DNA is transferred to the recipient cell.
In SCNT, not all of the donor cell's genetic information is transferred, as the donor cell's mitochondria that contain their own mitochondrial DNA are left behind.

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